CHAPTER 2
Special Theory of Relativity
2.1 The Apparent Need for Ether
2.2 The Michelson-Morley Experiment
2.3 Einstein’s Postulates
2.4 The Lorentz Transformation
2.5 Time Dilation and Length Contraction
2.6 Addition of Velocities
2.7 Experimental Verification
2.8 Twin Paradox It was found that there was no
2.9 Space-time displacement of the interference
2.10 Doppler Effect fringes, so that the result of the
experiment was negative and would,
2.11 Relativistic Momentum therefore, show that there is still a
2.12 Relativistic Energy difficulty in the theory itself…
2.13 Computations in Modern Physics - Albert Michelson, 1907
2.14 Electromagnetism and Relativity
Newtonian (Classical) Relativity
Assumption
It is assumed that Newton’s laws of motion must
be measured with respect to (relative to) some
reference frame.
Inertial Reference Frame
A reference frame is called an inertial frame
if Newton laws are valid in that frame.
Such a frame is established when a body, not
subjected to net external forces, is observed
to move in rectilinear (along a straight line)
motion at constant velocity.
Newtonian Principle of Relativity or
Galilean Invariance
If Newton’s laws are valid in one reference
frame, then they are also valid in another
reference frame moving at a uniform velocity
relative to the first system.
This is referred to as the Newtonian
principle of relativity or Galilean
invariance.
Inertial Frames K and K’
K is at rest and K’ is moving with velocity
Axes are parallel
K and K’ are said to be INERTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS
The Galilean Transformation
For a point P
In system K: P = (x, y, z, t)
In system K’: P = (x’, y’, z’, t’)
vt
x P
K K’ x’-axis
x-axis
Conditions of the Galilean Transformation
Parallel axes
K’ has a constant relative velocity in the x-direction
with respect to K
Time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental invariant,
i.e., the same for all inertial observers
The Inverse Relations
Step 1. Replace with
Step 2. Replace “primed” quantities with
“unprimed” and “unprimed” with “primed”
The Transition to Modern Relativity
Although Newton’s laws of motion had the
same form under the Galilean transformation,
Maxwell’s equations did not.
In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed a
fundamental connection between space and
time and that Newton’s laws are only an
approximation.
Historical remark: The year 1905 was annus mirabilis (Latin: the year of
wonders), as Albert Einstein made important discoveries concerning
the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion special theory of relativity.
2.1: The Apparent Need for Ether
The wave nature of light suggested that there
existed a propagation medium called the
luminiferous ether or just ether.
Ether had to have such a low density that the planets
could move through it without loss of energy
It also had to have an elasticity to support the high
velocity of light waves
Maxwell’s Equations
In Maxwell’s theory the speed of light, in
terms of the permeability and permittivity of
free space, was given by
Thus, the velocity of light must be a constant.
An Absolute Reference System
Ether was proposed as an absolute reference
system in which the speed of light was this
constant and from which other
measurements could be made.
The Michelson-Morley experiment was an
attempt to show the existence of ether.
Similarity between the Michelson-Morley interferometer and the race
between two swimmers between floats anchored in the river bed.
Assumptions
Equally fast swimmers
Speed of each swimmer = c
Water velocity or drift of the ether with respect to the earth = v
Equal distance l1 l2 between floats
v
v c 2 v 2
D v
c
l1
2l 2lc tll 1
A C t tll 2 2 tll t
c v
2 2
c v t 1 v2 / c2
l2 The perpendicular swimmer wins!
2.2: The Michelson-Morley Experiment
Albert Michelson (1852–1931) was the first
U.S. citizen to receive the Nobel Prize for
Physics (1907), and built an extremely
precise device called an interferometer to
measure the minute phase difference
between two light waves traveling in mutually
orthogonal directions.
The Michelson Interferometer
1. AC is parallel to the
motion of the Earth
inducing an “ether wind”
2. Light from source S is
split by mirror A and
travels to mirrors C and D
in mutually perpendicular
directions
3. After reflection the
beams recombine at A
slightly out of phase due
to the “ether wind” as
viewed by telescope E.
The system was set on a rotatable platform
Typical interferometer fringe pattern, which is
expected to shift when the system is rotated
The Analysis
Assuming the Galilean Transformation
Time t1 from A to C and back on parallel course:
Time t2 from A to D and back on perpendicular course:
.
So that the change in time is:
The Analysis (continued)
Upon rotating the apparatus, the optical path lengths ℓ1
and ℓ2 are interchanged producing a different change in
time: (note the change in denominators)
The Analysis (continued)
Thus a time difference between rotations is given by:
and upon a binomial expansion, assuming
v/c << 1, this reduces to
Results
Using the Earth’s orbital speed as:
V = 3 × 104 m/s
together with
ℓ1 ≈ ℓ2 = 1.2 m
So that the time difference becomes
Δt’ − Δt ≈ v2(ℓ1 + ℓ2)/c3 = 8 × 10−17 s
The light period this is about T=λ/c~600nm/(3108
m/s)=2 10-15 s, thus (Δt’ − Δt) /T~0.04 (λ is a
wavelength of light wave).
Although a very small number, it was within the
experimental range of measurement for light waves.
Michelson’s Conclusion
Michelson noted that he should be able to detect
a phase shift of light due to the time difference
between path lengths but found none.
He thus concluded that the hypothesis of the
stationary ether must be incorrect.
After several repeats and refinements with
assistance from Edward Morley (1893-1923),
again a null result.
Thus, ether does not seem to exist!
Most famous "failed" experiment, but great conclusive results!
Possible Explanations
Many explanations were proposed but the
most popular was the ether drag hypothesis.
This hypothesis suggested that the Earth
somehow “dragged” the ether along as it rotates
on its axis and revolves about the sun.
This was contradicted by stellar aberration
wherein telescopes had to be tilted to observe
starlight due to the Earth’s motion. If ether was
dragged along, this tilting would not exist.
The Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction
Another hypothesis proposed independently by both
H. A. Lorentz and G. F. FitzGerald suggested that
the length ℓ1, in the direction of the motion was
contracted by a factor of
thus making the path lengths equal to account for
the zero phase shift, which is seen from the equation
This, however, was an ad hoc assumption that could not
be experimentally tested.
Section 2.1, problem 6
2.3: Einstein’s Postulates
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was only two
years old when Michelson reported his first
null measurement for the existence of the
ether.
At the age of 16 Einstein began thinking
about the form of Maxwell’s equations in
moving inertial systems.
In 1905, at the age of 26, he published his
startling proposal about the principle of
relativity, which he believed to be
fundamental.
Einstein’s Two Postulates
With the belief that Maxwell’s equations must be
valid in all inertial frames, Einstein proposes the
following postulates:
1) The principle of relativity: The laws of
physics are the same in all inertial systems.
There is no way to detect absolute motion, and
no preferred inertial system exists.
2) The constancy of the speed of light:
Observers in all inertial systems measure the
same value for the speed of light in a vacuum.
Revisiting Inertial Frames and the Re-
evaluation of Time
In Newtonian physics we previously assumed
that t = t’
Thus with “synchronized” clocks, events in K and
K’ can be considered simultaneous
Einstein realized that each system must have
its own observers with their own clocks and
meter sticks
Thus, events considered simultaneous in K may
not be simultaneous in K’.
The Problem of Simultaneity: “Gedanken”
(German) (i.e. thought) experiment
Frank at rest is equidistant from events A and B:
A B
−1 m +1 m
0
Frank “sees” both flashbulbs go off
simultaneously.
The Problem of Simultaneity
Mary, moving to the right with speed
v v
is at the same 0 position when flashbulbs go off,
but she sees event B and then event A.
−1 m 0 +1 m
A B
Thus, the order of events in K’ can be different!
We thus observe…
Two events that are simultaneous in one
reference frame (K) are not necessarily
simultaneous in another reference frame (K’)
moving with respect to the first frame.
This suggests that each coordinate system
must have its own observers with “clocks”
that are synchronized…
Synchronization of Clocks
Step 1: Place observers with clocks throughout a
given system
Step 2: In that system bring all the clocks together at
one location
Step 3: Compare the clock readings
If all of the clocks agree, then the clocks are
said to be synchronized
A method to synchronize…
One way is to have one clock at the origin set
to t = 0 and advance each clock by a time
(d/c) with d being the distance of the clock
from the origin.
Allow each of these clocks to begin timing when a
light signal arrives from the origin.
t=0
t = d/c t = d/c
d d
The Lorentz Transformations
The special set of linear transformations that:
1) preserve the constancy of the speed of light
(c) between inertial observers;
and,
2) account for the problem of simultaneity
between these observers
known as the Lorentz transformation equations
Lorentz Transformation Equations
Lorentz Transformation Equations
A more symmetric form:
Section 2.4, problem 17
Properties of γ
Recall β = v/c < 1 for all observers
1) equals 1 only when v = 0
2) Graph of β:
(note v ≠ c)
Thank you for your attention!
