Development, Governance and

Policy
LU 4
Chapter 10 pg. 219
 Outcomes
 Why is the link between national or regional policy and ecotourism policy so
important?
 What is the relationship between good definition, policy and good practice?
 What is governance?
 List five different environmental governance models that may be used to
better understand how ecotourism is planned and managed.
 What is dependent development, and why is it that LDCs seem to be more
dependent than more development nations?
 Introduction
 Focus is based on new research that has emerged on environmental governance
 A survey on the organisational framework of different environmental
governance approaches
 Efforts have been made to fit different tourism themes and case studies into this
framework which include partnerships, community, development and social
capital
 Cooperation comes up as a key theme in how it exists as a fundamental
component of these various interactive mechanisms
 Policy actions are required to ensure that ecotourism development is consistent
with the needs of local people and the environment
 A range of actors who must be involved in the ecotourism policy development
are identified and present a policy framework that encompasses a broad
spectrum of issues related to proper implementation
 Pro-poor Tourism
 Pro-poor tourism is one of the mechanisms used to level the economic playing field in
tourism and in other sectors of the economy
 This is an agenda that is geared towards the best interest of local people through
implementation of new and different tourism development strategies that create net
benefits to the poor
 Rogerson (2006) stated that SA has taken a leading position in the implementation of pro-
poor policy during apartheid period, as tourism has been earmarked as a key catalyst for
local economic development for the country
 Rogerson (2006) states that rural pro-poor tourism is anchored on 3 main foundations:
1. To increase the amount of the lodge industry’s wage bill captured by local households
and increase the ability of local people to take up employment at all levels of the game
lodge industry
2. Stimulate a variety of small enterprises capable of taking up contracts inside the game
reserve and its lodges
3. Foster the conditions for the local residents to develop their own game lodges in the
game reserves in partnership with professional operators an lodge developers from the
private sector
 Ecotourism, Governance and the Politics of
Development
 It is difficult to separate development from governance and politics
 The 3 basic levels that define the institutional framework of ecotourism
according to Funnell and Bynoe (2007):
1. The private sector
2. State parastatal organisations that manage and operate environmental
assets
3. residents who use environmental assets in sustaining themselves
 The 4 main institutional arrangements for community involvement
ecotourism are:
 Table 10.1
 Ecotourism, Governance and the Politics of
Development Cont.
Description of institution Institutional arrangement for ecotourism
Community-based (purest model) Community-based ecotourism (CBE) that is
owned, controlled and managed by members
of the community
Joint venture partnership with private sector Partnership venture ecotourism with the
or NGO community or family and an outside business
partner or NGO, sometimes based on lease
agreement
Private business comprising independent Privately owned ecotourism enterprise that
operations; sometimes based on agreement owned, controlled and managed by a private
tour operator who employs members of
communities as cooks, drivers, tour guides,
etc.
Non-organisation institutions (comprise of Family or group of ecotourism initiatives
individuals, households ) who manage their within communities
use of natural resources according to
community norms and personal
understanding of possible and limitations of
Glasbergen’s Work on Environmental Governance
 Governance in resource management emerges from:
1. The interactions of actors
2. Encompassing structures and processes through which societal decisions are made and
power is exercised
3. Formally through institutions or informally through norms
 Glasbergen (1998) identified 5 distinct models in an organizational framework which
provide a spectrum of different possibilities in regard to goal-oriented and deliberate
intervention within society:
1. Regulatory control
2. Market regulation
3. Civil society
4. Contextual control and self-regulation
5. Cooperative management
 Regulatory Control
 Government acts as a regulator of social change
 Legal rules are established with the goal of specifying conduct according to
prescriptions and proscriptions
 Regulations thus refer to the efforts of an agency (government,
international or trade) that has been given the authority to regulate the
actions of businesses (e.g. airline industry)
 Market Regulation
 The price is given a key role in achieving change
 Government's role is a being a facilitator of the market processes and self-
interest is seen as a solution
 Contextual Control and Self-regulation
 This model is based on the critique that society ought to be shaped wholly
through government intervention
 While regulatory and market models are based on individual self-interest, the
self-regulatory model applies to the system (group) itself within civil society
Tour operators
 Operators favour self-regulation and voluntary guidelines
 Since operators are the one working in the environment they how to:
1. Manage their affairs without government help
2. Solve their own problems
3. Take the lead in terms of planning and implementing an appropriate product
 Cooperative Management
Cooperation
 This model of governance is unique because of its attempt to combine different types of rationality
 Cooperation in the tourism context is working together towards an expected end
The 10 principles to follow in order to achieve conservation goals of a project are:
1. Interinstitutional cooperation
2. Participatory approach
3. Interdisciplinary approach
4. International cooperation
5. Communication through the media
6. Identification of flagship species
7. Education
8. Ecotourism
9. Administrative sustainability
10. Research
 Cooperative Management Cont.
Partnership
 The development of partnerships is the key feature of cooperative management
in pursuing common goals
 Partnership are – on-going arrangement between two or more parties, based on
satisfying specially identified, mutual needs
The six stage model of a successful partnership development agreement :
1. Education of self and others
2. Needs assessment and resource inventory
3. Identifying prospective partners and investigating their needs and inventories
4. Comparing and contrasting needs and resources
5. Developing a partnership proposal
6. Proposing a partnership
 Cooperative Management Cont.
Potential Partners enter into partnership with are:
1. Organisations within the established tourism industry –tour operators
2. Government tourism bureau and natural resource agencies especially park
service
3. NGOs involved with environmental issues, small business management and
traditional community development
4. Universities and other research organisations
5. Other communities like those with a history of tourism and the novice
6. Other international organisations, public & private funding institutions,
national cultural committees and many others
 Cooperative Management Cont.
Collaborative Management
 Different stakeholders involved in tourism policy development typically act
according to their own interests, power and knowledge
 There are varying levels of commitment by stakeholders (local and state
governments, small and large tourism businesses, community groups and
NGOs, developers and other external actors) which are:
1. The building of institutional capacity
2. Establishment of protected areas
3. Investment in environmental projects
4. Controlling development and tourist flows
 Ecotourism Policy
 National or regional ecotourism plans are more meaningful if related to and
informed by a broader national tourism policy
 Policy recommendations for the development of the ecotourism industry:
1. A state ecotourism policy and development plan
2. Interagency coordination and cooperation with the private sector
3. Increased funding support through direct and indirect means
4. Active community participation in planning and decision-making
In addition to these, the government needs to play a leadership role in
providing financing, management skills and knowledge for the smooth and
efficient operation of the private sector
 Ecotourism Policy Cont.
 The Government must do the following:
1. Facilitate efficient private-sector activity by minimizing market interference and use
competition as means of control
2. Ensure a sound macro-economic environment
3. Guarantee law and order and just settlements of disputes
4. Ensure the provision of appropriate infrastructure
5. Ensure the development of human resources
6. Protect the public interest without obstructing private-sector activity with many
regulations
7. Promote private-sector activity by not competing in the business arena with private
enterprises
8. Acknowledge the role of small business entrepreneurs and facilitate their activities
 Ecotourism Policy Cont.
Policy Implementation Framework
 Development objectives
 Inventories
 Infrastructure and facilities
 Market
 Carrying capacity
 Development
 Economic
 Environment
 Culture
 Standards
 Human resources
 Organisation
 Regulations and monitoring
 Data system and implementation
 Ecotourism Policy Cont.
 Regions need to follow this basic planning process when deciding to plan
and develop ecotourism in their areas:
1. Study preparation
2. Determination of objectives
3. Survey
4. Analysis
5. Policy and plan formulation
6. Recommendations
7. Implementation and monitoring
 Activity
 Complete the summary questions on Pg. 248 (assignment)
 Questions 1, 3 &4 only