Management of Instruction
Chapter 7
An educational movement that was initiated as early as the 1900
and eventually has reached the public and private schools echoed
the need for setting standards in content areas to increase
educational quality.
Along this line, content standards are put up in accordance with
educational goals to have quality programs and challenging
courses.
Educational experts and teacher were tapped to develop content
standards.
These content standards detail precisely what learners should
know and be able to do in each subject at each year level.
A call for adaptating content standards was echoed with the end
in view of creating an enriched and affective curriculum.
The subject matter structure points to
the interrelationships among the
components of a subject matter. This is
where the content, skills, and other
affective elements are integrated.
Teaching of values connects teaching of
facts , skills, and concepts to the life of
the learners, thus acquiring meaning.
Affective
Cognitive skills
Figure 10. Affective as the apex of the triangle
Cognitive
skills Affective
Figure 11. Cognitive as the apex of the triangle
Cognitive is placed at the tip of the triangle, emphasizing that facts,
concepts, principles, hypotheses, theories, and laws are the core
of the teaching –learning process.
skills
Affective Cognitive
Figure 12. Skills as the apex of the triangle
Skills at the top of the triangle . It means that the emphasis of the
subject, say Physical Education , is more on manipulative and body
skills.
Generally, in the preparation of the learning objectives, teachers
tend to emphasize the three domains, namely, cognitive,
affective, and skills according to their priorities. Very likely most
of the public schools, teacher subscribe to the knowledge
(cognitive), skills (manipulative), values (affective) in that order
in the matter of focus in teaching.
The cognitive elements is The skills elements refers to the:
concerned with: Thinking skills
Divergent skills
Facts Convergent skills
Concepts Problem Solving
Generalizations Metaphoric thinking
Principles Critical thinking
Hypotheses Creative thinking
Procedures
Theories
Manipulative skills
Laws
facts is an idea or action that can be verified. A fact is the basic
unit of cognitive subject matter content. Examples: (1) names
and dates of important activities; (2) population of the
Philippines; (3) death is inevitable; (4) change is the only thing
permanent in the world; or (5) Power corrupts.
Concept is a categorization of events, places, ideas. Examples:
(1)the concept of furniture includes objects, such as chairs,
tables, desks, beds; (2) maturation is a natural process of
growing up ; or (3) an organization is a system that interacts with
the environment.
Generalization is a general statement of idea. Examples: (1) All
men are mortals; (2) All things have a beginning and end; or (3)
Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder.
Principles is a rule, tenet, guide, an essential element of
quality; the ultimate or basic source or cause, or a natural or
original tendency. Examples: (1) Teaching is a combination of
methods; (2) One of the principles in the classroom is
genuineness and non possessive warmth; or (3) There is provision
to meet individual differences in the classroom.
Hypotheses are educated guesses about relationship/s. Example:
for lower division under graduated students, study habit is a
better predictor of success in a college course than as a measure
of intelligence or reading comprehension.
Procedure means process, algorithm, step-by-step account,
sequential description, and seriation in the teaching of content
subject. Normally, to achieve the best results, procedure is done
from the simple to the complex (inductive method). Ex. (1) How
to enrol in a college or university. (2) how to remain slim. (3)
How to cook pork and chicken adobo.
Theory is a set of facts, concepts, and principles that describes
underlying unobservable mechanisms that regulate human
learning, development and behaviour. Theory explains why these
principles are true. Ex. Piaget’s theory on cognitive development.
Laws are firmly established, thoroughly tested principle, or
theory. Ex. Thorndike’s primary and secondary laws of learning.
Divergent Skills
Divergent thinking refers to the ability to come up with multiple
solution to one problem.
It is the process of idea generation.
Divergent thought is critical for creativity and problem solving.
It requires learners to generate their own data or a new
perspective on a give topic.
includes fluent thinking, flexible thinking, and original and
elaborative thinking.
Can use divergent thinking to come up with numerous ways to
achieve this objectives.
A “tween” is a child between the ages 9 and 12. also knowns as
preteens, middle schoolers, tweeny or tweenies.
A tween is no longer a child, but not quite a teenager yet. While
a tween is not yet in the midst of adolescence, he will face a
variety of obstacles in the next few years, including transitioning
from elementary school to high school, approaching puberty,
increasing responsibilities, rising number of homework, and even
exposure to dangerous behaviours, such as substance abuse by
their peers or by other people they encounter.
Divergent thinking is essential for healthy cognition, strong
academics, and success in facing and coping with thedaily life
challenges.
Divergent thinking is discussed in two leading theories of
intelligence advocated by psychologists Robert Sternberg and
Howard Gardner. Psychologist Teresa Amabile is also
distinguished for her work on children’s and divergent thought.
These skills are about narrowing down from many possible ideas
or opinions and ending up with the single best thought or solution
to a problem.
Convergent thinking is used when an individual tries to give one
correct answer to a problem.
In solving math problems or getting the answer for 30 x 3,
children and tweens need convergent thought, as there is only
one accurate answer to this equation.
In fact much of a conventional school’s curriculum and
assessments or diagnostic tools rely on convergent thinking.
Standardized tests, multiple choice exams, and traditional
intelligence tests all solely measure a child’s ability to think in a
convergent manner.
While convergent thinking is necessary for strong grades in a
traditional school system where correct answer are rewarded,
tweens who only exercise their convergent thinking skills may
suffer in terms of creativity and flexible thinking.
Is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing, and
solving problems.
The ultimate goal of a problem solving is to overcome obstacles
and find a solution that best resolves an issue.
The best strategy for solving a problem depends mainly on the
uniqueness of the situation .
Is made easier when the problem is well defined .
It is doubly difficult when the problem is ill defined. When it is ill
defined, then the first thing to teach our students is to better
define the problem.
Identifying the Problem. Even if this appears to be an obvious
step, problem identification is nit always as easy it sounds. In
some cases, people might identify the incorrect origin of a
problem, and if such happens, attempts to solve it will be
futile or pointless.
Defining the problem. After the problem has been identified,
it is imperative that its full definition is elaborated so that it
can be solved.
Forming a strategy. Developing a strategy or approach will
vary depending on the situation and the individual’s distinct
preferences.
Organizing Information. Before arriving at a solution,
organizing available information is needed. What do we know
and not know about the problem? As more information
becomes accessible, the better prepared we will be to come
up with an accurate solution.
Allocating Resources. We do not have infinite fund, time, and
other assets to solve problems. Determining the priorities is
needed before solving a problem. If it is an important problem
that also needs to be addressed urgently, it is worth allocating
more resources for its resolution.
Monitoring Progress. Effective problem solvers tend to
monitor their progress as they work toward a solution. If they
are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they
will re-evaluate their approach or look for new strategies.
Evaluating the Result. After a solution has been reached, it is
important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best
possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be
immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to
ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as
evaluating the success of a therapy program after several
months of treatment.
Break large problems into well-defined ones.
Distinguish information needed.
Identify techniques to find needed information.
Algorithm. Solving a problem by the use of an algorithm means
following specific, step-by-step instructions. An example is when
you assemble the dismantled parts of a new toy by the following
the how to assemble instructions.
Heuristics. General problem solving strategy is the informal,
intuitive, speculative strategies that sometimes lead to an
effective solution and sometimes do not.
Tips in Problem Solving
Provide worked-out examples with algorithms being applied.
Help students understand why particular algorithms are relevant
and effective in certain situations.
When a student’s application of a algorithm yields an incorrect
answer, look closely at the specific steps the students have taken
until the trouble spot is located.
For Teaching Heuristics:
Give students practice in defining ill-defined problems.
Teach heuristics that students can use where no algorithms apply.
For Teaching Both:
Metaphoric Thinking. This thinking uses analogical thinking, a
figure of speech where a word is used in a manner different from
its ordinary designation to suggest or imply a parallelism or
similarity.
Critical thinking. Is the process of independently analyzing,
synthesizing, and evaluating information as a guide to behaviour
and beliefs.
