Ch.
13 Genetic Technology
What You’ll Learn
You will evaluate the importance of plant
and animal breeding to humans
You will summarize the steps used to engineer
transgenic organisms.
You will analyze how mapping the human
genome is benefitting human life.
Section Objectives
Evaluate the importance of plant and animal
breeding to humans.
Explain a testcross.
Selective Breeding
From ancient times, breeders have chosen plants
and animals with the most desired traits to serve as
parents of the next generation.
Breeders of plants and animals want to be sure that
their populations breed consistently so that each
member shows the desired trait.
selective breeding requires time, patience, and
several generations of offspring before the desired
trait becomes common in a population.
Increasing the frequency of desired alleles in a
population is the essence of genetic technology.
Inbreeding develops pure lines
Inbreeding is mating •Horses and dogs are two
between closely related
individuals. It results in examples of animals that
offspring that are breeders have developed as
homozygous for most traits.
pure breeds.
To make sure that breeds
consistently exhibit a trait
and to eliminate any
undesired traits
can bring out harmful,
recessive traits because
there is a greater chance
that two closely related
individuals both may carry a
harmful recessive allele for
the trait.
Hybrids are usually bigger and better
hybrid is the offspring of
parents that have
different forms of a trait.
produced by crossing
two purebred plants are
often larger and
stronger than their
parents.
Test crosses can determine genotypes
organisms that are either homozygous dominant or
heterozygous for a trait controlled by Mendelian
inheritance have the same phenotype.
One way to determine the genotype of an organism is
to perform a test cross.
A test cross is a cross of an individual of unknown
genotype with an individual of known genotype.
The pattern of observed phenotypes in the offspring
can help determine the unknown genotype of the
parent.
Section Objectives:
Summarize the steps used to engineer
transgenic organisms.
Give examples of applications and benefits of
genetic engineering.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is a faster and more
reliable method for increasing the frequency
of a specific allele in a population
This method involves cutting—or cleaving—
DNA from one organism into small fragments
and inserting the fragments into a host
organism of the same or a different species.
You also may hear genetic engineering
referred to as recombinant DNA technology
Recombinant DNA is made by connecting or
recombining, fragments of DNA from different
sources.
Transgenic organisms contain
recombinant DNA
Plants and animals that contain
functional recombinant DNA from an
organism of a different genus are known
as transgenic organisms because they
contain foreign DNA.
recombinant DNA
Enzymes are used to “cut and paste”
Steps involved:
Isolate a desired gene using
restriction enzymes:are bacterial proteins
that have the ability to cut both strands of the DNA
molecule at a specific nucleotide sequence.(the
scissors doing the cut
DNA ligase “pastes” the DNA fragments
together (the glue)
The result is recombinant DNA
Restriction enzymes cleave DNA
The same sequence of
bases is found on both DNA
strands, but in opposite
orders. GAATTC
CTTAAG
This arrangement is called a
palindrome. Palindromes
are words or sentences
that read the same forward
and backward.
form sticky ends:
single stranded ends
that have a tendency to
join with each other (
the key to recombinant
DNA
Vectors transfer DNA
vector is the means by which Plasmids
DNA from another species
can be carried into the host
cell.
may be biological or
mechanical.
Biological vectors include
viruses and plasmids. A
plasmid, is a small ring of
DNA found in a bacterial cell.
Vectors transfer DNA
Two mechanical vectors carry foreign DNA
into a cell’s nucleus
One, a micropipette, is inserted into a cell; the
other is a microscopic metal bullet coated
with DNA that is shot into the cell from a gene
gun.
1..Isolate DNA
from two sources
Gene cloning Human
cell
Plasmid
[Link] both
Bacteria take the DNAs with
recombinant plasmids the same
and reproduce 3. Mix the DNAs; restriction
they join enzyme
This clones the by base-pairing
plasmids and the genes [Link] DNA ligase
they carry Recombinant to bond the DNA
DNA covalently
Clones are genetically identical plasmid
copies.
– Products of the gene can 5. Put plasmid
then be harvested into bacterium
The process of cloning a
human gene in a bacterial
[Link] the
plasmid can be divided into bacterium
six steps. Bacterial clones
carrying many
copies of the
human gene
Cloning of animals
You have learned
about gene cloning
Scientists are
perfecting the
technique for
cloning animals
(We will discuss
later.)
Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR)
method is used to
amplify DNA sequences
The polymerase
chain reaction
(PCR) can quickly
Initial
clone a small DNA
sample of DNA in a segment
test tube
Number of DNA
molecules
Sequencing DNA
millions of copies of a double-stranded DNA fragment are
cloned using PCR. Then, the strands are separated from each
other.
The single-stranded fragments are placed in four different test
tubes, one for each DNA base.
Each tube contains four normal nucleotides (A,C, G,T) and an
enzyme that can catalyze the synthesis of a complementary
strand.
One nucleotide in each tube is tagged with a different
fluorescent color.
The reactions produce complementary strands of varying
lengths.
These strands are separated according to size by gel
electrophoresis producing a pattern of fluorescent bands in the
gel.
The bands are visualized using a laser scanner or UV light.
Gel Electrophoresis sorts DNA molecules by
size
Separation technique: separates DNA by size and charge
[Link] enzymes
– cut DNA I into fragments
2. The gel
– Wells made at one end. Small amounts of DNA are placed in the wells
3. The electrical field
gel placed in solution and an electrical filed is set up with one neg. (-)
& one pos. (+) end
4. The fragments move
negatively charged DNA fragments travel toward positive end. The
smaller fragments move faster.
Mixture of DNA
molecules of
different sizes
Longer
molecules
Power
source
Gel Shorter
molecules
Applications of DNA Technology
Recombinant DNA
in industry
Many species of bacteria have
been engineered to produce
chemical compounds used by
humans.
Scientists have modified the
bacterium E. coli to produce the
expensive indigo dye that is
used to color denim blue jeans.
The production of cheese,
laundry detergents, pulp and
paper production, and sewage
treatment have all been
enhanced by the use of
recombinant DNA techniques
that increase enzyme activity,
stability, and specificity.
Applications of DNA Technology
Recombinant DNA
in medicine
Pharmaceutical companies
already are producing
molecules made by
recombinant DNA to treat
human diseases.
Recombinant bacteria are
used in the production of
human growth hormone and
human insulin
–This lab equipment
is used to produce
a vaccine against
hepatitis B
Applications of DNA Technology
Recombinant
DNA in
agriculture
Crops have been
The Most Common Genetically Modified (GM) Crops
developed that are
better tasting, stay fresh
longer, and are
protected from disease
and insect infestations.
“Golden rice” has been
genetically modified to
contain beta-carotene
Could GM organisms harm human
health or the environment?
Genetic engineering
involves some risks
– Possible ecological
damage from pollen
transfer between GM and
wild crops
– Pollen from a transgenic
variety of corn that
contains a pesticide may
stunt or kill monarch
caterpillars
Transgenic animals :Scientists can study
diseases and the role specific genes play in an
organism by using transgenic animals.
Scientists can study
diseases and the role
specific genes play in
an organism by using
transgenic animals.
Mapping and Sequencing the
Human Genome In February of 2001, the HGP
published its working draft of the 3 billion base pairs of DNA
in most human cells.
The Human
Genome Project
involves:
– genetic and physical
mapping of
chromosomes
– DNA sequencing
– comparison of
human genes
with those of
other species
Sequencing the human genome
The difficult job of sequencing the human
genome is begun by cleaving samples of
DNA into fragments using restriction
enzymes.
Then, each individual fragment is cloned and
sequenced. The cloned fragments are
aligned in the proper order by overlapping
matching sequences, thus determining the
sequence of a longer fragment.
Applications of the Human
Genome Project
Improved techniques for
prenatal diagnosis of human disorders,
– use of gene therapy,
– development of new methods of crime
detection are areas currently being
researched.
– diagnosis of genetic disorders.
Diagnosis of genetic disorders
The DNA of people with and without a genetic
disorder is compared to find differences that
are associated with the disorder. Once it is
clearly understood where a gene is located
and that a mutation in the gene causes the
disorder, a diagnosis can be made for an
individual, even before birth.
Gene therapy
the insertion of normal
genes into human cells
to correct genetic
disorders.
– Progress is slow,
however
– There are also
ethical questions
related to gene
therapy
DNA fingerprinting
STEPS~use non-coding
DNA
1. Sample DNA cut with
restriction enzymes
2. Fragments separated by
size using gel
electrophoresis
3. Fragments with highly
variable regions are detected
with DNA probe, revealing
DNA bands of various sizes
4. The pattern of bands
produced is the DNA
fingerprint, which is
distinguished statistically
form other individuals
