BIOLOGY
Chapter 44: pp. 819 - 838 10th Edition
Sylvia S. Mader
Population Ecology
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PowerPoint® Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor 1
Copyright © The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display
Outline
Scope of Ecology
Demographics of Populations
Population Density and Distribution
Survivorship Curves
Age Distributions
Population Growth Models
Exponential Growth
Logistic Growth
Regulation of Population Size
Life History Patterns
Human Population Growth
Environmental Impact
2
Scope of Ecology
Ecology
The study of the interactions of organisms with
Other organisms, and
The physical environment
Habitat - Place where an organism lives
Population - All the individuals of a species within a
particular space
Community – Various populations of multiple species
interacting with each other
Ecosystem - Community interacting with the
environment
Biosphere - All the communities on Earth whose
members exist in air and water and on land
3
Ecological Levels
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Organism Population Community Ecosystem
© David Hall/Photo Researchers, Inc.
4
Demographics of Populations
Demography is the statistical study of a
population
Demography includes
Population density
Population distribution
Growth rate of a population
5
Density and Distribution of Populations
Population Density - Number of individuals
per unit area
Population Distribution - Pattern of
dispersal of individuals across an area of
interest
Limiting factors are environmental aspects
that particularly determine where an
organism lives
6
Distribution Patterns of the Creosote Bush
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a. Clumped b. Random c. Uniform
d. Mature desert shrubs
d: © The McGraw Hill Companies, Inc./Evelyn Jo Johnson, photographer
7
Population Growth
The rate of natural increase depends on
The number of individuals born each year, and
The number of individuals who die each year
8
Population Growth
Biotic Potential
The maximum rate of natural increase for a
population that can occur when resources are
unlimited
Biotic potential depends on factors that
influence the population’s reproduction,
including
The usual number of offspring
The chance of survival until reproductive age
How often each individual reproduces
The age at which reproduction begins
9
Biotic Potential
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a. b.
a: © age fotostock/SuperStock; b: © Royalty-Free/Corbis
10
Mortality Patterns
A cohort
Composed of all the members of a population
born at the same time
Survivorship
The probability that newborn individuals of a
cohort will survive to a particular age
Survivorship Curves
11
Survivorship Curves
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1,000 1,000
I Death occurs after midpoint.
Number of Survivors
Number of Survivors
100 100
I
II Death unrelated to age.
II
III
10 10
III Death comes early on.
0 0
0 50 100 0 50 100
Percent of Life Span Percent of Life Span
a. b. Bluegrasses
1,000 1 million
Number of Survivors
100 10,000
Number of Survivors
10 100
0 0
0 50 100 0 50 100
Percent of Life Span Percent of Life Span
c. Lizards d. Mosquitoes
b: © Holt Studios/Photo Researchers, Inc.; c: © Bruce M. Johnson; d: © Digital Vison/Getty RF Images
12
Age Distribution
The proportion of the population that falls into
various age categories
There are three major age groups
Prereproductive
Reproductive
Postreprodutive
At least three age structure diagrams are
possible
Increasing
Stable
Decreasing
13
Age Structure Diagrams
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Age Structure
Postreproductive Ages
Reproductive Ages
Prereproductive Ages
Increasing Population Stable Population Decreasing Population
14
Patterns of Reproduction
Semelparity
Members of a population have only a single
reproductive event in their lifetime
Iteroparity
Members of the population experience many
reproductive events throughout their lifetime
15
Patterns of Reproduction
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a. b.
a: © Breck P. Kent/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; b: © Doug Sokell/Visuals Unlimited
16
Exponential Growth
Rate of population growth increases as the
total number of females increases
Biotic potential is having full effect and
birthrate is a maximum during exponential
growth
Phases of an exponential growth curve
During the lag phase, growth is small because the
population is small.
During the exponential growth phase, growth is
accelerating.
17
Model for Exponential Growth
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Generation Population Size
0 10.0
1 24.0
2 57.6
3 138.2
4 331.7
5 796.1
6 1,910.6
7 4,585.4
8 11,005.0
9 26,412.0
10 63,388.8
a.
70
60 R = 2.4
Population (thousands)
50
40 exponential growth
30
20
10
lag
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Generations
b.
To calculate population size from year to year, use this formula:
Nt+1 = RNt
Nt = number of females already present
R = net reproductive rate
Nt+1 = population size the following year
c.
18
Logistic Growth
Environmental Resistance
All environmental conditions that prevent
populations from achieving biotic potential
Logistic growth
Occurs when environmental resistance retards
exponential growth
Growing populations must eventually come
under the control of environmental resistance
19
Logistic Growth
Phases of a logistic growth curve
During the lag phase, growth is slow because
the population is small.
During the exponential growth phase, growth is
accelerating.
During the deceleration phase, growth slows
down.
During the stable equilibrium phase, there is
little if any growth.
20
Model for Logistic Growth
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Growth of Yeast Cells in Laboratory Culture
Time (t ) Number of Number of individuals D N
(hours) individuals (N) added per 2-hour period D t
0 9.6 0
2 29.0 19.4
4 71.1 42.1
6 174.6 103.5
8 350.7 176.1
10 513.3 162.6
12 594.4 81.1
14 640.8 46.4
16 655.9 15.1
18 661.8 5.9
a.
700
Number of Yeast Cells
deceleration
600
stable
500 equilibrium
400 exponential phase
300 growth
200 lag
100
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Time (hours)
b.
To calculate population growth as time passes, use this
formula:
N K–N
= rN
t K
N = population size
N/t = change in population size
r = rate of natural increase
K = carrying capacity
K – N = effect of carrying capacity on population growth
K
c.
21
Carrying Capacity
Carrying Capacity
The maximum number of individuals of a
species the environment can continuously
support
The closer the population to the carrying
capacity, the greater the environmental
resistance
22
Regulation of Population Size
Density-independent Factors
The population density does not influence
the intensity of the factor’s effect
Natural disasters
Density-dependent Factors
The percentage of the population affected
increases as the population density
increases
Competition
Predation
Parasitism
23
Density-dependent Effect
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2,000
decline as
a result
of sudden
Number of Reindeer
1,500
exponential resource
growth depletion
1,000
500
0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950
© Paul Janosi/Valan Photos
24
Density-independent Effects
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a. Low density of mice b. High density of mice
25
Density-dependent Effects -- Competition
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a. Low density of birds b. High density of birds
26
Density-dependent Effects -- Predation
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a. Low density of mice b. High density of mice
27
Life History Patterns
Life histories contain characteristics of a
population such as
The number of births per reproduction
The age of reproduction
The life span
The probability of an individual living the entire life
span
Each population distributes energy among its life
span, reproduction events, and care of offspring.
Related species may have different life history
patterns.
28
Parental Care Among Frogs and Toads
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a. Mouth-brooding frog, Rhinoderma darwinii b. Strawberry poison arrow frog, Dendrobates pumilio c. Surinam toad, Pipa pipa
d. Wood frog, Rana sylvatica e. Midwife toad, Alyces obstetricans
a, b: © Michael Fogden/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; c: © Tom McHugh/Photo Researchers, Inc.; d: © Matt Meadows/Peter Arnold, Inc.;
e: © Mike Linley/OSF/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes
29
Life History Patterns
r is the rate of natural increase of a
population.
K is the carrying capacity of the
environment.
Some populations are subject to r-
selection, and other populations are subject
to K-selection.
30
Life History Patterns
r - Selection
In unstable or predictable environments, population
growth is controlled by density-independent factors.
Population size is low relative to K.
r - Strategists (opportunistic species)
Produce large numbers of offspring
Have a small body size
Mature early
Have a short life span
Do not invest energy in parental care
Tend to be good dispersers and colonizers
31
Life History Patterns
K - Selection
In stable, predictable environments, population size is
controlled by density-dependent factors.
Population size tends to be near K.
K - Strategists (equilibrium species)
Produce small numbers of offspring
Have a large body size
Mature late
Have a long life span
Invest energy in parental care
Tend to be strong competitors
Are often specialists
32
Life History Strategies
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Opportunistic Pattern Equilibrium Pattern
• Small individuals • Large individuals
• Short life span • Long life span
• Fast to mature • Slow to mature
• Many offspring • Few and large offspring
• Little or no care of offspring • Much care of offspring
• Many offspring die • Most young survive to
before reproducing reproductive age
• Early reproductive age • Adapted to stable
environment
(Dandelions): © Ted Levin/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; (Bears): © Michio Hoshino/Minden Pictures
33
Ecology Focus: When a Population Grows
Too Large
White-tailed deer are prolific breeders
Female deer breed their first year, and once they start
breeding, produce about two young each year of life.
A century ago, the white-tailed deer population
was less than half a million
Today, it is well over 200 million
Natural predators of deer, such as wolves and
mountain lions, are now absent from most
regions.
34
Ecology Focus: When a Population Grows
Too Large
Populations that are too large may suffer
from starvation as they deplete their own
food supply
For example, after deer hunting was
banned on Long Island, New York, the deer
population quickly outgrew available food
resources
35
White-tailed Deer
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a. b. c.
a: © Dominique Braud/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; b: © Stephen J. Krasemann/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
c: © John Cancalosi/Peter Arnold, Inc.
36
Human Population Growth
The human population is undergoing
exponential growth.
The doubling time of the human population
is currently estimated at 52 years
Population Size
1800 1 Billion
1930 2 Billion
1960 3 Billion
2000 6 Billion
37
More-Developed Versus Less-
Developed Countries
More-Developed Countries (MDCs)
North America, Europe, Japan, and Australia
Slow population growth
High standard of living
A demographic transition (decreased death rate
followed by decreased birth rate) has occurred, so
population growth has stabilized.
38
More-Developed Versus Less-
Developed Countries
Less-Developed Countries (LDCs)
Latin America, Africa, and Asia
Rapid population growth
Low standard of living
Strategies to reduce population growth
Family planning programs
Social progress, which may reduce the desire for large
families
Delay the onset of childbearing
39
World Population Growth
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12
10
highest growth
lowest growth
8
Billions of People
less-developed countries
more-developed countries
0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2008 2250
Year
a. b.
b(Top): © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Jill Braaten, photographer; b(Bottom): © Robert Harding/Robert Harding World Imagery/Corbis
40
Age Distributions
Populations of MDCs and LDCs can be
divided into three age groups
Prereproductive
Reproductive
Postreproductive
MDCs and LDCs have different age
structure diagrams
Many MDCs have a stable age structure
Most LDCs have a youthful profile and are
experiencing population growth
41
Age Structure Diagrams (2002)
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80+
75–79
70–74
65–69 postreproductive
60–64
55–59
50–54
Age (in years)
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34 reproductive
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14 prereproductive
5–9
0–4
Millions
a. More-developed countries (MDCs)
80+
75–79
70–74
65–69 postreproductive
60–64
55–59
Age (in years)
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
reproductive
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
300 250 200 150 100 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Millions
b. Less-developed countries (LDCs)
c.
c: © Still Pictures/Peter Arnold, Inc.
42
Environmental Impact
Environmental impact of a population is
measured in terms of:
Population size
Resource consumption per capita
Resultant pollution due to resource
consumption
There are two types of overpopulation
Overpopulation due to population growth
Overpopulation due to increased resource
consumption
43
Environmental Impact Caused by
MDCs & LDCs
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Population Hazardous Waste Production Consumption
fossil fuels paper
LDCs
LDCs LDCs
40%
MDCs 10% 25%
22%
MDCs
60%
metals
MDCs
75%
LDCs MDCs
78% 90%
LDCs MDCs
a. b. 20% 80%
MDCs = more-developed countries LDCs = less-developed countries c.
(LDC): © Earl & Nazima Kowall/Corbis; (MDC): © Comstock Images/Getty RF
44
Review
Scope of Ecology
Demographics of Populations
Population Density and Distribution
Survivorship Curves
Age Distributions
Population Growth Models
Exponential Growth
Logistic Growth
Regulation of Population Size
Life History Patterns
Human Population Growth
Environmental Impact
45
BIOLOGY
Chapter 44: pp. 819 - 838 10th Edition
Sylvia S. Mader
Population Ecology
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Vol. 44 PhotoDisc/Getty Images
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor 46
Copyright © The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display
