System Earthing

GRID
Technical Institute

This document is the exclusive property of Alstom Grid and shall not be
transmitted by any means, copied, reproduced or modified without the prior
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 System Earthing

Earth faults :- 70  90% of all faults.

EA

IF

2 > System Earthing

 System Earthing

Earthing method determines :-

 Fault current IF

 Damage caused
 Steady state overvoltages
 Transient overvoltages
 Insulation requirements
 Quantities available to detect faults
 Type of Protection

3 > System Earthing

 Earthing Method

Solid / Low Z High Z

IF High Low

Overvoltages in Low High

Sound Phases

Damage High Low

Cost of Insulation Low High

Low Voltage Systems For Safety

Medium Voltage Systems To limit current

cost of insulation
acceptable

High Voltage & To limit cost

EHV Systems of insulation

4 > System Earthing

 Methods of Earthing In Common Use

 Solid or Direct Earthing

 Resistance Earthing
 Reactance Earthing
 Resonant or Petersen Coil Earthing
 Insulated Earth

5 > System Earthing

 System Earthing

Solid

Lowest System Z0

IF High
- Damage
- Easy E/F Protn.

No Arcing Grounds IF >> ICHARGE

Lowest Overvoltages

6 > System Earthing

 System Earthing

Reactance

Lower IF

Higher Transient Overvoltages

Cheaper than resistance at high volts
Overvoltages during E/Fs
0.8  1 x VØ/Ø
Not often used except as tuned reactor

7 > System Earthing

 System Earthing

Petersen Coil

XE   XCHARGING

Arcing faults self extinguishing

- Good for transient faults
XE needs changing if XC alters
Overvoltages during E/Fs  VØ/Ø
Insulation important
Restricts use of auto-transformers
Tuned
Discriminative E/F protection difficult

8 > System Earthing

 System Earthing

Resistance

Reduced IF
Reduced transient overvoltages
Not self extinguishing but E/F easier to
detect

9 > System Earthing

 System Earthing

Unearthed

Insulated
IF Capacitive
Can be self extinguishing if IF small
Overvoltages during E/Fs = VØ/Ø
Arcing faults likely - high transient
overvoltages
Insulation important

10 > System Earthing

 System Earthing

 660 V Solid - Safety

Insulated - Special cases where continuity
of supply required

660 V  33 kV Resistance or reactance normally used

Solid - When IF is low

Resistance - IF limited to IFL
Reactance - IF(E/F) limited to IF(3Ø)
Petersen - Overhead lines. Lightning
Coil

> 33 kV Solid
Overvoltages more important (insulation)

Directly Coupled Resistance - Most common

Generators Solid and - Not recommended
Reactance (High IF )
11 > System Earthing
 System Earthing

Generator - Transformer Units

IF ~ 10  15 A

IF ~ 200  300 A

12 > System Earthing

 Low Voltage System Earthing

Safety :-

 Power system neutral solidly earthed at transformer.

 Metallic tools and appliances solidly earthed.

 Sensitive protection by :-

RCD’s :- Residual current devices

ELCB’s :- Earth leakage circuit breakers

13 > System Earthing

 Earth Fault Hazard

Unearthed
Appliance

ZF

Z
P
VP
ZF = Fault impedance ZE
ZP = Human body impedance
ZE = Environmental impedance
VP = Case / earth potential

14 > System Earthing

 Earth Fault Hazard
RCD for High ZF
Unearthed
Appliance
Fuses for
High IF

IF

ZF

Protective Earth Conductor

Z
VH
P
VP
ZF = Fault impedance
ZE
ZP = Human body impedance
ZE = Environmental impedance
Without protective earth : -
VP = Case / earth potential
ZP
VH  E/N .
ZP  ZF  ZE
15 > System Earthing
 Unearthed L.V. Winding

Normal
V Conditions

H.V. L.V.

16 > System Earthing

 Unearthed L.V. Winding

Inter-winding fault ‘F’

causes dangerous rise
in L.V. voltage

VF
yv

L.V.
xV

H.V.

VF = xV + (1 - y)v

17 > System Earthing

 Breakdown Between HV and LV Windings

3000 / 440 V Transformer

A2

1730V a2

254V
N n

c2 b2

C2 B2

Normal voltage conditions

Neutrals earthed or unearthed

18 > System Earthing

 Breakdown Between HV and LV Windings

A2
95V
a2
xH x xL
1730V 254V
n
1009V
850V
c2 b2 755V

C2 B2

Voltage conditions with breakdown

between HV and LV at point X on phase
LV neutral unearthed

19 > System Earthing

 Hand to Hand Resistance of Living Body
50Hz AC (Freiburger 1933)

6000

5000
Resistance - Ohms

4000

Very Dry Skin

3000

2000

1000 Very Moist Skin

0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Volts
20 > System Earthing
 Effects of Body Current

1mA Can be felt

> 9mA Cannot let go

15mA Threshold of cramp

30mA Breathing difficult

Rise in blood pressure

50mA Heart misses odd beat

50  200mA Heavy shock

Unconsciousness

> 200mA Reversible cardiac arrest

Current marks
Burns

21 > System Earthing

 Effects of Various Values of Body Current
Current at 50Hz Duration Physiological effects on humans
to 60Hz r.m.s. of shock
value mA
0-1 not Range up to threshold of perception.
critical Electrocution not felt.

1-15 not Range up to threshold of cramp.

Critical Independent release of hands from object gripped no longer possible. Possibly
powerful and sometimes painful effects on muscles of fingers and arms.

15-30 minutes Cramp-like contraction of arms. Difficulty in breathing. Rise in blood pressure.
Limit of tolerability.

30-50 seconds Heart irregularities. Rise in blood pressure. Powerful cramp-effect. to minutes
Unconsciousness. Ventricular fibrillation if long shock at upper limit of range.

less than No ventricular fibrillation. Heavy shock.

50 to a cardiac cycle
few hundred
above one Ventricular fibrillation. Beginning of electrocution in relation to heart phase not
cardiac cycle important. (Disturbance of stimulus conducting system?)
Unconsciousness. Current marks.

less than Ventricular fibrillation. Beginning of electrocution in relation to heart phase

cardiac cycle Important Initiation of fibrillation only in the sensitive phase.
Above (Direct stimulatory effect on heart muscle?) Unconsciousness. Current marks
few hundred
over one Reversible cardiac arrest. Range of electrical defibrillation. Unconsciousness.
cardiac cycle Current marks. Burns

22 > System Earthing

 Body Current / Time and Security

Threshold
of
10,000 Fibrillation
Threshold
of
Threshold Let Go
of
Perception
Time 1,000
(mS)
IEC Security
Curve

100 Let Go
Hold On

10
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
Current (mA)
23 > System Earthing
 Earthing Impedance Affects Touch & Step Potentials

E
!
Touch RF
Step RE True IF
VH VH Earth
Surface

RG
Don’t forget
communications
cables etc.
entering S/S !

IF

IF

RG ' RG
VH  E True Earth
RE  RF  RG ' d
RG' = f(Distance)
25 > System Earthing
 Interconnected Star (Zig-Zag) Earthing Transformer
Single Earthing Resistor
I

2I 3I
3I Earth
Fault

Transformer Insulated I I I
for Line Voltage

I 2I 3I
Resistor Insulated
I I I For System Phase
Voltage

26 > System Earthing

 Interconnected Star Earthing Transformer
Three Earthing Resistors
I

2I 3I
3I Earth
Fault

Note:- Resistors to
Resistors I I I
be insulated for line
voltage and to have 3
times the ohmic value
of a single neutral
I I
resistor
I

I 2I 3I

I I 3I
I

27 > System Earthing

 Displacement of Neutral from Earth
during an Earth Fault
Z IF
Va

N
Vc Vb Z

ZE
Va

G G

ZE
VGN  F ZE  VaN . N
ZE  Z
Vc Vb
28 > System Earthing
 Earth Fault on System with Insulated Earth

Va

N Vab
Vc Vb Ib - jX c

Vac
Ic - jX c
Vab Vac
IF
- jX c - jX c

-jXc -jXc -jXc

29 > System Earthing

 Earth Fault on System with Insulated Earth

G Vab Vac
Vac
F  
Vab - jXc - jXc
Va 3VaN
  3 x normal charging current
- jXc
Vac
 - c
- jX c
N
Vc Vb
IF
30 30
Vac
Vab
- jX c  - b
- jX c
Vab Vac Vb
b  -   b  3 .  3 x normal charging current
- jXc - jXc Xc

Vac Vca Vc
c  -   c  3 .  3 x normal charging current
- jXc - jXc Xc
30 > System Earthing
 Earth Fault on System
with Resistance Earthed System

Va

Vc Vb

VaN Vab Vac

RE IF
- jX c - jX c
RE
-jXc -jXc -jXc

a, G a, G
G a

31 > System Earthing

 Earth Fault on System
with Resistance Earthed System

Vb
b  3  3 x normal
Xc charging current
VaN
-Ic -Ib RE
IF
Vc
c  3  3 x normal
G
Xc charging current

Vac Va
Vab

N
Vac Vb
 - c
- jXc Vc
Vab
 - b
- jXc

32 > System Earthing

 Earth Fault on System with Resonant
or Petersen Coil Earthing

Va

N Vab
- b 
- jXc
Vc Vb

VaN Vab Vac

jXL IF
- jX c - jX c
-jXL
-jXc -jXc -jXc

a, G a, G

a,G
33 > System Earthing
 Earth Fault on System with Resonant or Petersen
Coil Earthing
G

Vac Vab

Va
VaN VaN
jXL jXL
N -Ic
Vc Vb
Vac
 - c
- jXc -Ib

Vab VaN
 - b F  - b -  
- jXc c jXL
V
 0 if aN  b  c
jXL
V/N 3. 3 3. 3 Xc
For perfect tuning    XL 
jXL 2jXc 2jXc 3
34 > System Earthing
 Sequence Impedances

Transmission Line
Generator
Generator Transformer
Fault

X
C C' Capacitance of
ZE Z'E the transmission
system

Positive Phase-Sequence Network :-

X1
ZG1 ZT1 ZL1
P1

Ea -jXC1 -jX'C1

N1

35 > System Earthing

 Sequence Impedances

Negative Phase-Sequence Network :-

X2
ZG2 ZT2 ZL2
P2

-jXC2 -jX'C2

N2

Zero Phase-Sequence Network :-

X0
ZG0 ZT0 ZL0
P0

3ZE -jXC0 3Z'E -jX'C0

N0

36 > System Earthing

 Fault Currents and Voltages Analysis of Single
Phase to Earth and Double Phase to Earth Faults

The following analysis relates to the system shown in Figure 7.

Let Z1, Z2 and Z0 be the system sequence impedances in the fault path.
Let Z2 = K2Z1 and Z0 = K0Z1.

For a phase to earth fault :

I1 = I2 = I0 = Ea/Z1 + Z2 + Z0
= Ea/Z1 (1 + K2 + K0)

37 > System Earthing

 Fault Currents and Voltages Analysis of Single
Phase to Earth and Double Phase to Earth Faults

For a phase to phase to earth fault :

Ea Ea
1  
Z Z
Z1  2 0  K 2K 0 
Z1 1  
Z 2  Z0  K 2  K0 

Z0 - Ea . K 0
 2  1 . 
Z 2  Z0 Z1 (K 2  K 0  K 2K 0 )

Z2 - Ea . K 2
0  1 . 
Z 2  Z0 Z1 (K 2  K 0  K 2K 0 )

38 > System Earthing

 Fault Currents and Voltages Analysis of Single
Phase to Earth and Double Phase to Earth Faults
Also :

V1 = Ea - I1Z1; V2 = -I2Z2 = -I2K2Z1; V0 = -I0Z0 = -I0K0Z1

Ia = I1 + I2 + I0; Va = V1 + V2 + V0

Ib = a2I1 + aI2 + I0; Vb = a2V1 + aV2 + V0

Ic = aI1 + a2 I2 + I0; Vc = aV1 + a2V2 + V0

From all these equations it is possible to calculate the fault

currents and voltages at the fault location in terms of the phase
sequence impedances of the system. The values of these
currents and voltages are shown in Table 2.
Currents have been expressed in terms of the three phase fault
current where I3Ø = Ea/Z1

39 > System Earthing

 Sequence Connections for Phase to Earth Fault

ZG1 ZT1 X1 ZL1 P1 I1

Ea -jXC1 -jX'C1
X0
N1 P2 ZL2 X2 ZT2 ZG2
N2 P0 ZL0 ZT0 3Z'E
N0
I2 -jXC2 I0
-jX'C2 -jX'C0
Z1

Z2 Z0

40 > System Earthing

 Phase to Earth Fault

E E E
1   2  0   
Z1  Z2  Z0 Z1  K 2Z1  K 0 Z1 Z1 1  K 2  K 0 

V1  E - 1Z1
V2  -  2Z2  -  2K 2Z1  - 1K 2Z1
V0  - 0 Z0  - 0K 0 Z1  - 1K 0 Z1

3E
a  31 
Z1 1  K 2  K 0 

For a fault at the same point : -

E 3
3   a  . 3
Z1 (1  K 2  K 0 )

41 > System Earthing

 Phase to Earth Fault

Vb  a2 V1  aV2  V0

 a2 Ea - 1Z1  a- 1K 2Z1 - 1K 0 Z1

 a2Ea - 1Z1 a2  aK 2  K 0 

 
. Z1  a2  aK 2  K 0 
Ea
 Eb -
Z1 (1  K 2  K 0 )  
a2  aK  K 
 2 0 
 Eb -  . Ea
1  K 2  K 0 

a  a2K  K 
 2 0 
Vc  Ec -  . Ea
1  K 2  K 0 
42 > System Earthing
 Phase to Earth Fault

VRES  Va  Vb  Vc
a2  aK  K  a  a2K  K 
 2 0 2 0 
 Eb  Ec -  . Ea
1  K 2  K 0 
 Eb  Ec  Ea
1  K 2  2K 0 
1  K 2  K 0 
3K 0
 Eb  Ec  Ea - . Ea
(1  K 2  K 0 )
 3K 0
 . Ea
(1  K 2  K 0 )

43 > System Earthing

 Sequence Connections for Phase
to Phase to Earth Fault

P0 ZL0 X0 ZT0 3Z'E N0

I0

-jX'C0

Z0

X1 Z X2
ZG1 ZT1 L1 P1 P2 ZL2 ZT2 ZG2 N2
I1 I2
Ea -jXC1 -jX'C1
-jXC2
N1
-jX'C2
Z2
Z
1
44 > System Earthing
 Steady-state Fault Currents and Voltages for
Phase-to-Earth and Double-Phase to Earth Faults

Phase to earth fault (a - e) Double phase to earth fault (b - c - e)

3
a . 3 0
1  K 2  K0

K 2 (a2  1)  K 0 (a2 - a)
b 0 . 3
K 2  K0  K 2 K0

K 2 (a  1)  K 0 (a - a2 )
c 0 . 3
K 2  K0  K 2 K0
- 3K 2
res Equal to a 3
K 2  K0  K 2 K0
3 K 2 K0
Va 0 . Ea
K 2  K0  K 2 K0

45 > System Earthing

 Steady-state Fault Currents and Voltages for
Phase-to-Earth and Double-Phase to Earth Faults

a2  a K 2  K 0
Vb Eb - Ea 0
1  K 2  K0

a  a2 K 2  K 0
Vc Ec - Ea 0
1  K 2  K0
Vab Equal to - Vb Equal to Va
K2  1
Vbc Ebc  Ebc 0
1  K 2  K0
Vca Equal to Vc Equal to Va
 3K 0
Vres . . Ea
1  K 2  K0

46 > System Earthing

 Z2
K2 
Z1

 Independent of earthing method

 Normally K2 = 1
 Close to power stations with synchronous
generators :-
K2  up to 1.4
X2 for cylindrical rotors = Xd"
for salient poles = Xd" to 1.4 Xd"

47 > System Earthing

 Z0
K0 
Z1
 Depends on method of earthing
 Relative values of transformer, generator and line impedances
 Transformer winding arrangement
 Amount and angle of ZLINE
 K0 has an angle
 K0 ranges from  for unearthed system to 0.2 for solid earthing and
fault close to a power station.

Line
XS1 = 25%
XS2 = 25%
X0 7 7
   0.219
XT1 = XT2 = XT0 =
X1 25  7 32
7%
48 > System Earthing
 Variation of Healthy Phase Voltages Due to
Different System Earthing for an A-E Fault
K0 VB calculated from
formula in Table 2 K 2  1
a2  a 
0 Eb -   Ea  Eb  Ea/2
 1  1 
a2  0  0.5 
0.5 Eb -   Ea  Eb  Ea/5
 1  1  0.5 
a2  a  1
1 Eb -   Ea  Eb
 1  1  1 
a2  a  4 
4 Eb -   Ea  Eb  Ea/2
 1  1  4 
 
 Eb -   Ea  Eb  Ea
 
49 > System Earthing
 Variation of Healthy Phase Voltages Due to
Different System Earthing for an A-E Fault
Ea

K = 0
G

K = 0.5 V'c V'b

K = 1
Ec Eb
Effectively earthed systems

K = 4 V"c V"b
Non-effectively earthed
systems

K = 

50 > System Earthing

 Healthy Phase Voltages during Earth Faults

 a2  aK  K 
Vb  Eb -  2 0 E
 a
 1  K 2  K 0 

Assuming K 2  Z2 /Z1  10
 a2  a  K 
Vb  Eb   0 E
 a
 2  K 0 

K0 = 0.5

Solid earthing; Fault near power station

VS.P. < VØ/N rated (- 0.95 VØ/N)

K0 = 1.0

Solid earthing; Fault remote from power station VS.P. = VØ/N rated

51 > System Earthing

 Healthy Phase Voltages during Earth Faults

K0  4.5

- Solid earthing; Remote fault; Long line

ZL0/ZL1 can be 4.5

- Also possible with low reactance earthing

- VS.P. = 0.75 VØ/Ø rated with K0. = 4

K0 > 1.0

VS.P. > VØ/N rated

52 > System Earthing

 Healthy Phase Voltages during Earth Faults

Effectively Earthed Systems

British definition (BS 162 : 1961) :-

VS.P. > 80% of VØ/Ø rated

Note :- VS.P. > 0.8 VØ/Ø rated

is possible on solidly earthed systems
 Overvoltage relays should not be connected
Ø/N or may operate for earth faults.
American definition :-
X0/X1  3 and R0/X1  1

K0 = high gives non effectively earthed system

e.g. For Resistance
Petersen Coil
Insulated }Z 0  
 VSP = VØ/Ørated

53 > System Earthing

 VØ/Ø during Earth Fault

 K2  1 
Vbc  Ebc    Ebc
1  K 2  K 0 

If generator AVR is not in service :-

I Z2 and Z0 fixed
I d"
Z1 varies from Xd" to Xd, i.e. increases
Id' If K2 = Z2/Z1 varies from 1 to 0.2
K0 = Z0/Z1 varies from 3.0 to 0.6
Vbc = Ebc

K2  1
Id Vb'c'  Ebc  . Ebc
1  K2  K0
Few Seconds  0.2 - 1.0 
 1   Ebc
 1  0.2  0.6 
 0.556 Ebc

54 > System Earthing

 Variation of Healthy Phase Voltages for an Earth Fault due
to changes of K2 and K0 during the Fault

Vc.and Vd are the healthy phase voltages at fault instant with K2 =

1.0 and K0 = 3.0.

Vc' and Vb' are the healthy phase voltages a few seconds after fault
occurs with K2. = 0.2 and K0 = 0.6.

Ea

Vc ' Vb'

Ec Eb

Vc Vb
55 > System Earthing
 Figure a

Z1 Z2 i Z0

Ea C1 C0 3ZE'
V0

56 > System Earthing

 Figure b

arc
restrikes
V0

Ea

arc extinguishes

57 > System Earthing

 400

VTRANSIENT
Unfaulted Phase
300

(% EØ/N PEAK)

200
Neutral to Earth

100
Faulted Phase

.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 2.0
Resistor kW
Charging kVA

58 > System Earthing

 Z1 Z2 i Z0

Ea C1 C0 3RE

59 > System Earthing

 0.7E pk

1
If 3R e 
V0 wC0
V0  0.7 Epk.e - t/
i

1
45º where   3REC0 
w
after 7.5ms : -
V0  0.06 Epk

60 > System Earthing

 Sound Phase Currents During an Earth Fault (1)

Source Load
1 X Y
6 5 5 1 1

6 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1
3 6 3
IF
3 3

61 > System Earthing

 Sound Phase Currents During an Earth Fault (2)

ZX1 I1 ZY1
IX1

ZX2 I2 ZY2
IX2

ZX0 I0 ZY0
IX0

62 > System Earthing

 Sound Phase Currents During an Earth Fault (3)

I1 = I2 = I0 = IX0 + IY0

if ZX0 = ZY0 then IX0 = IY0

IF = 3I0 = 6IX0 ; Iya = IYb = IYc = IX0 = IY0 = IF/6

IXa = IX1 + IX2 + IX0 = 5IX0 = 5IF/6

IXb = a2IX1 + aIX2 + IX0 = -I0 + IX0 = -IF/6

IXc = -IF/6

63 > System Earthing

 Parallel Generators (1)

Only 1 machine is earthed :-

3 E/F

G1 G2 G3 G4

64 > System Earthing

 Parallel Generators (2)

Consider the current in G1

for :- (i) Earth Fault

(ii) 3Ø Fault

Let

ZG11 = ZG21 = ZG31 = ZG41 = 0.244 p.u.

ZG12 = ZG22 = ZG32 = ZG42 = 0.124 p.u.
ZG10 = ZG20 = ZG30 = ZG40 = 0.05 p.u.

65 > System Earthing

 Earth Fault (1)

Sequence Networks :-
ZG11 ZG12 ZG10
IG11 IG12 IG10
ZG21 ZG22

ZG31 ZG32
EG
IF1 F1 N2 IF2 F2 N0 IF0 F0
N1 ZG42
ZG41

0.244p.u. 0.124p.u. 0.05p.u.

1p.u. 0.244p.u. 0.124p.u.

0.244p.u. 0.124p.u.
IF1 IF2 IF0 F
N1 0.124p.u.
0
0.244p.u.

66 > System Earthing

 Earth Fault (2)

1p.u.
0.061 0.031 0.05

IF1 F1 N2 IF2 F2 N0 IF0 F0

N1

IF1 = IF2 = IF0 = 1 = 1 = 7.04 p.u.

0.061 + 0.031 + 0.05 .142

IF = 3IF1 = 21.12 p.u.

IG11 = IF1 = 1.76 p.u. IG12 = IF2 = 1.76 p.u. IG10 = 7.04 p.u.
4 4

 IG1 = IG11 + IG12 + IG10 = 1.76 + 1.76 + 7.04 = 10.56 p.u.

67 > System Earthing

 3Ø Fault

ZG11 = .244
IG11

1p.u. ZG21 = .244

ZG31 = .244
N1 IF1 F1
ZG41 = .244

IG11 = 1 = 4.1 p.u.

.244

 IG1 = 4.1 p.u.

68 > System Earthing
 Thermal Stress

 G1 (E/F)  10.56 p.u.

 G1 (3 )  4.1 p.u.

Thermal Stress   2

2
10.56 
 E/F Stress    x 3 Stress
 4.1 

 6.55 x 3 Stress

69 > System Earthing

 Methods of Neutral Earthing (1)
Aspect Solid Resistance Resistance & High value Low value Tuned Insulated
reactance reactor reactor reactor

Normal Suitable for Suitable for Suitable for phase Suitable for Suitable for If used for Suitable for line
insulation phase voltage phase voltage voltage line voltage for phase voltage operation with voltage for long
continuously continuously continuously long periods continuously one line earthed
for long periods
insulation must
be suitable for
line voltage

Over voltages:
(a) Initiated by Not excessive Not excessive Not excessive provi- Can be very high Not excessive Not excessive if Arcing ground
faults, ding all three phases e.g. neutral no mutual coup- can give very
switching, etc are made or broken inversion ling between zero high voltages
simultaneously & positive seq-
uence networks

(b) Travelling Negative In general, “ Full reflection at Full reflection at Full reflection at Full reflection
waves reflection negative neutral neutral neutral at neutral
reflection at
neutral

Protection:
(a) Automatic No difficulty No difficulty No difficulty, normal Extremely diffi- No difficulty By using special Extremely
segregation normal methods normal methods methods can be cult if more than normal methods technique can be difficult
of faulty zone can be used can be used used one zone can be used done satisfac-
involved torily

(b) Travelling Diverters rated In general, In general, diverters Diverters rated In general, Diverter rated Diverters rated
waves for phase volts diverters rated rated for line volts for line volts are diverters rated for for line volts are for line volts
are suitable for line voltage are essential essential line volts are essential are essential
are essential essential

70 > System Earthing

 Methods of Neutral Earthing (2)
Aspect Solid Resistance Resistance & High value Low value Tuned Insulated
reactance reactor reactor reactor
Earth-fault
Current
(a) Value Highest value High value High value Negligible High value Negligible Capacitive if
small may be
self exting-
uished

(b) Duration Few seconds Few seconds Few seconds Long time Few seconds Few seconds or In general long
continuous, time
depending on
method of
application

(c) Effect on Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Electromagnetic Electrostatic Electromagnetic If used for Electrostatic
communica- interference interference interference interference interference may running contin- interference
tion circuits may necessi- depending on depending on necessitate current uously with one
tate current degree of degree of limitation limitation line earthed
limitation limitation requires partic-
ular consideration

Harmonic No limitation Partial limitations Partial limitation of Limits all Appreciably limits Appreciably limits -
currents in of harmonic of harmonic harmonic currents harmonic all harmonic all harmonic
neutral currents currents currents currents currents

Time rating of 30 sec. 30 sec. 30 sec. Continuous 30 sec. 30 sec. or -

neutral apparatus continuous

General remarks Maximum In general use In general use where Confined mainly Cheaper than Best continuity Some applica-
disturbance to a source neutral is to protection of resistor at very of supply. Can tions on short
system not available generator on high voltages be a danger to feeders, in
generator trans- personnel general to be
former unit avoided
71 > System Earthing