EMBRIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

dr. Zainuri Sabta Nugraha, [Link]

Departemen Anatomi
Fakultas Kedokteran UII 1
NERVOUS & ENDOCRINE CONTROL
SYSTEMS: A CONTRAST

NERVOUS SYSTEM ENDOCRINE

 Mechanism of control: SYSTEM
◦ Neurotransmitters  Mechanism of control:
released in response to ◦ Chemical messengers
nervous stimuli. delivered to target
 Target Cells: tissues.
◦ Muscles  Target Cells:
◦ Glands ◦ Virtually any or all of
◦ Other neurones the cells of the body

2
3
NERVOUS & ENDOCRINE CONTROL
SYSTEMS: A CONTRAST

 RESULTANT  RESULTANT
ACTION: ACTION:
◦ Muscular contraction ◦ Changes in Metabolic
◦ Glandular secretion Activities.
 TIME TAKEN FOR  TIME TAKEN FOR
ONSET OF ACTION: ONSET OF ACTION:
◦ Milliseconds. ◦ Seconds to hours or
days.
 DURATION OF THE
ACTION:  DURATION OF THE
◦ Generally short.
ACTION:
◦ Generally long.

4
 Endocrine System
 The endocrine system is all the organs of the body that are
endocrine glands.
 An endocrine gland without ducts: Ductless glands secretes
hormones.
 Hormones are molecules that are secreted into the blood.
 Hormones are substances that are secreted by one group of
cells that affects the physiology of another group of cells
(organs). The endocrine system is controlled by the pituitary
gland and the hypothalamus.
 Compared to most other organs in the body, endocrine
organs are well vascularized.

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 NEUROENDOCRINE RELATIONS
• We usually contrast nervous system structures with
endocrine structures. But...

• ...certain nervous system cells act as endocrine cells

and certain endocrine tissues are derived from
neural ectoderm.

• Nerve cells that produce hormones and secrete

them into the bloodstream are called
NEUROSECRETORY CELLS. In humans,
neurosecretory cells are found in the
HYPOTHALAMUS.

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Control of Hormones Release: Three Mechanisms

Figure 25.2a-c 7
Endocrine Organs
 Purely endocrine organs
◦ Pituitary gland
◦ Pineal gland
◦ Thyroid gland
◦ Parathyroid glands
◦ Adrenal: 2 glands
 Cortex
 Medulla
 Endocrine cells in other
organs
◦ Pancreas
◦ Thymus
◦ Gonads
◦ Hypothalamus
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 An Overview of the Endocrine System

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 HYPOTHALAMUS &
PITUITARY GLAND
• Location: Small but complex appendage that
sits at the base of the brain – in the sella
turcica – most median depression in the medial
cranial fossa of the sphenoid bone.
• Pituitary lies just inferior to hypothalamus.
• Hypothalamus an Pituitary connected by stalk
containing nerve fibers and blood vessels.
• Pituitary composed of two lobes: ANTERIOR
PITUITARY and POSTERIOR PITUITARY.

10
The Pituitary Gland
 The adenohypophysis portion of the pituitary gland
(anterior lobe) actually develops from an embryonic
pouch that grows upward from the ectoderm of the
pharynx!
 One type of diabetes (insipidus) can be caused by
trauma to the pituitary gland.
 A tumor of the pituitary gland can lead to blindness
because it is so close to the optic chiasma.

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The Pituitary Gland
 Secretes nine major hormones
 Attached to the hypothalamus by the
infundibulum (stalk)
 Two basic divisions of the pituitary gland
◦ Adenohypophysis (anterior lobe)
◦ Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe)

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 Sits in hypophyseal fossa: depression
The Pituitary in sella turcica of sphenoid bone
Pituitary secretes 9 hormones

Two divisions:
1. TSH The first four are “tropic”
hormones, they regulate the
 Anterior pituitary 2. ACTH function of other hormones
(adenohypophysis) 3. FSH
________
4. LH
5. GH
6. PRL
7. MSH
______________________________________________________
 Posterior pituitary 8. ADH (antidiuretic hormone),
(neurohypophysis) or vasopressin
9. Oxytocin

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Study Tip to remember the hormones
secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
 “Melons grow and produce through late fall” stands for the
hormones made in the anterior pituitary.

 Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)

 Growth Hormone (GH)
 Adrenal corticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
 Prolactin (PRL)
 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
 Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
 Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH)

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The Neurohypophysis
 This is a continuation of the brain; cell
bodies of special neurons in the
hypothalamus have axons which go to the
neurohypophysis and synapse on capillaries
there. Instead of releasing neurotransmitter,
they release hormones.
 Oxytocin
◦ Childbirth contractions
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
◦ Signals kidneys to increase water reabsorption

Figure 25.6 15
PITUITARY GLAND

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Figure 25.3a-c 17
 The Pituitary Gland

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig 19.3 Gross Anatomy -Histological Organization of the Pituitary Gland

and Its Subdivisions
Fig 19.5 The Pituitary Gland and the Hypophyseal Portal System
20
Hypothalamus
 This is located at the base of the brain. It is part
of the limbic system, which controls the
autonomic nervous system and the endocrine
systems.
 The hypothalamus controls the endocrine system
by controlling the pituitary gland.
◦ Secretes releasing hormones to cause the pituitary to
release hormones
◦ Secretes inhibiting hormones to turn off secretion of
pituitary hormones

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 Figure 19.2 Hypothalamic Control over Endocrine Organs
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
 HYPOTHALAMUS & PITUITARY
GLAND
Embryological Derivation:

• Hypothalamus is an outgrowth of brain, neural

ectoderm.

• Posterior Pituitary is an outgrowth of hypothalamus,

neural ectoderm.

• Anterior Pituitary develops as a superiorly directed

outgrowth of roof of mouth, endoderm.

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EMBRYOLOGY OF THE PITUITARY

 Anterior Pituitary or Adenohypophysis:

◦ Derived from an upward evagination of the
Rathke’s pouch (Ectoderm).
 Posterior Pituitary or Neurohypophysis:
◦ Derived from a downward growth of the
Infundibulum from the Diencephalon, a structure of
the Neurectoderm.

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 HYPOTHALAMUS & PITUITARY
GLAND
• Innervation: Part of brain or very close to it in case
of pituitary. Some hypothalamic neurons secrete
neurohormones – they pass down connecting stalk
to terminate close to the capillaries serving posterior
pituitary.

• Arterial Supply: circulosus artriosus cerebri

• Venous Drainage: cavernous venous sinus

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ADENOHYPOPHYSIS:
CLASSICAL CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS

 CHROMOPHOBES:
◦ 50% of the cells
◦ Agranular & Non secretory
 CHROMOPHILS:
◦ Acidophils: 35%
 Secrete: Growth Hormone & Prolactin
◦ Basophils: 15%
 Secrete:
 Glycoproteins : FSH, LH & TSH
 Polypeptides : ACTH & MSH

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MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF
ADENOHYPOPHYSIAL CELLS
 SOMATOTROPHS:  GONADOTROPHS:
◦ Secrete Growth ◦ Are of two types:
Hormone  FSH type: secrete FSH
 MAMMOTROPHS:  LH type: secrete LH

◦ Secrete Prolactin  CORTICOTROPHS

 THYROTROPHS: (ADRENOCORTICO
MELANOTROPHS)
◦ Secrete TSH
◦ Secrete ACTH & MSH

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 POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND HORMONES

Oxytocin and Vasopressin are manufactured in the

hypothalamus, but released in the posterior pituitary.

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HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSIAL
CONNECTIONS
VASCULAR NEURAL
 Between the Median  Between the Supraoptic &
Eminence (eminentia Paraventricular Nuclei in
mediana) of the the Hypothalamus & the
Hypothalamus & the Posterior Pituitary.
Anterior Pituitary.  The Hypothalamo-
 The Hypothalamo- hypophysial tract.
hypophysial portal system.  Neural connection:
 Vascular connection: ◦ Carries the secreted
◦ Carries Hypophysiotropic hormones, ADH & Oxytocin,
hormones. from the Hypothalamus to
the Post Pituitary.

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Note Pituitary
Portal System!!

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H
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HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSIAL
neurovascular tract

Regulator hormon dari HYPOTHALAMUS

ditranspor ke pituitari anterior melalui SISTEM
VENA PORTAE HYPOTHALAMUS. Dengan jalur:
CIRCULUS A. CEREBRI (circulus willisi) -a.
Hypophysialis superior plexus primarius
(anyaman kapiler di dalam hypothalamus yang
menghasilkan regulator hormon)  vena portae
hypophysialis  plexus secundarius (anyaman
kapiler ke dua di dalam pituitari anterior yang
menghasilkan regulator hormon di
hypothalamus dan hormon pituitari)  v.
Hypophysialis anterior  vena jugularis interna.32
 Learn the 3 endocrine organs on this slide:
Hypothalamus
Pituitary (hyophysis)
Pineal

Hypothalamus__
Anterior pituitary__
_____________Poste
(adenohypophysis) (neuro

Hypothalamus___________
Pituitary_______
___
(hypophysis)

33
 PINEAL GLAND
Location and Development: outgrowth of the roof of
the diencephalon. Found near the posterior margin of
the corpus callosum, slightly cranial and superior to
cerebellum.

Innervation: (Already) Part of brain.

Arterial Supply: circulosus artriosus cerebri

Venous Drainage: cavernous venous sinus

Function: MELATONIN – amino acid derivative thought

to have connection with regulating sleep cycle.

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35
PINEAL GLAND
GLANDULA PINEALIS terletak di otak, sebelah posterior dari
hypothalamus. Kelenjar ini menghasilkan hormon MELATONIN, yang
pengeluaranya di atur oleh irama sircadian siang dan malam. Apabila
terdapat banyak cahaya yang masuk (siang), produksi melatonin
mengalami penurunan drastis. Sebaliknya produksi melatonin
meningkat selama hari gelap, sehingga melatonin disepakati sebagai
pengatur jam biologi tubuh (siklus siang-malam) dan memacu aktivitas
tidur

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 THYMUS GLAND
Location: Located just deep to sternum and just ventral to great
vessels of heart. Until puberty, a large structure, after which it
begins to atrophy and gets replaced with adipose tissue.

Development: from epithelial cells derived from endoderm of third

pair of visceral pouches (3rd gill slit pouch).

Innervation: Vagus Nerve (X), like any posterior gill slit structure!

Arterial Supply: anastomosis from internal thoracic artery (branch

of subclavian) and superior and inferior thymic arteries.
Venous Drainage: thyroid veins and left brachiocephalic vein.

Function: THYMOSIN, THYMUS HUMERAL FACTOR,

THYMOPOIETIN – convert embryonic lymphocytes into T-cells.

37
 Adult
THYMUS

38
Adult
THYMUS
39
One-year
old
THYMUS

40
 THYROID GLAND
Location: Located close to thyroid cartilage. Has
two lateral lobes connected by thyroid
isthmus medially. Isthmus covers cricoid
cartilage in ventral view.

Development:
first endocrine gland to apear during development.
Develops from endodermal thickening in floor of early
pharynx and epithelium of 3rd and 4th gill slit pouches
as early as 24 days after fertilization. Starts out
caudal to tongue, but ultimately comes to be wrapped
around laryngeal cartilages.

41
Thyroid

1. Bi-lobed structure in neck;

lobes connected by isthmus
that crossed anterior to
trachea
2. Gut Endoderm origin
3. Begins to function 10 wk of
fetal development
4. The normal mass of the
thyroid is about 30 g.
5. It is highly vascularised and
receives 80-120 ml of
blood per min. 42
Thyroid

Microscopic spherical sacs called thyroid follicles makes up the most

of thyroid gland.
The wall of each follicle consists primarily of cells called follicular cells, most
of which extend to the lumen of the follicle.
A basement membrane surrounds each follicle.
When the follicular cells are inactive, their shape is low cuboidal to squamous,
but under the influence of TSH they become active in secretion and
ranges from cuboidal to low columnar in shape.
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Thyroid
1. The follicular cells produce two hormones:
thyroxin (tetraiodothyronin) or T4
because it contains four atoms of iodine,
and triiodothyronin or T3, which
contains three atoms of iodine.T3 and
T4 are also known as thyroid hormones.
2. Between follicles are many fenestrated
capillaries, some connective tissue
3. Follicle cells synthesize and secrete
colloid and then pinocytose colloid,
process it and release hormones from
basal surface of cell to capillaries
4. Parafollicular (C) cells: A few cells, larger,
pale staining, in follicle epithelium or in
clusters between follicles. They produce
the hormone calcitonin, which helps
regulate calcium homeostasis.

44
45
 THYROID GLAND
Innervation: Vagus Nerve (X)

Arterial Supply: superior thyroid artery (branch of external

carotid artery).

Venous Drainage: drained by dense interconnected network

of pharyngeal veins that eventually dump into superior
thyroid vein and inferior thyroid vein. These are tributaries
of intrenal jugular veins and left brachiocephalic vein
respectively.

Functions:
THYROXIN – regulate rate of metabolism
CALCITONIN – decreases levels of calcium and phosphate
in the blood (partially antagonistic to parathyroid hormone).

46
REGULATION OF THYROID HORMONE
SECRETION

47
 PARATHYROID GLAND
Location:
• Usually paired.
• Very small (less than 5 mm).
• Called parathyroid glands because of their
position on posterior margins outer surface of
thyroid gland.
• More superior of each pair usually near middle of
margin of lobe.
• More inferior of each pair usually at inferior apex
of lobe.

Development: Like thyroid gland, develop from

endodermal thickening in floor of early pharynx
and epithelium of 3rd and 4th gill slit pouches.
48
 Four to eight tiny glands embedded in
posterior aspect of thyroid

Pharynx
(posterior
aspect)

Capillary

Thyroid Parathyroid
gland
cells
Parathyroid
glands
(secrete
parathyroid
Esophagus
hormone)
Trachea Oxyphil
cells

MDufilho 7/6/2012 49
 PARATHYROID GLANDS

Parathyroid glands secretes

parathyroid hormone.
[Link] is small, pea-shaped glands, 3 X 6 m
on posterior side of thyroid
2.2 cells: Chief cells and oxyphil cells
[Link] regulate the level of calcium in the
body (osteoclast activity) and regulates
phosphate levels.
[Link] hormone - ↑ level of calcium in
blood
[Link] can result if
parathyroids are removed or destroyed. 50
 Parathyroids
(two types of
cells)
 Rare chief cells
 Abundant oxyphil cells
(unknown function)

 Chief cells produce PTH

◦ Parathyroid hormone, or
parathormone
◦ A small protein hormone
◦ PTH—most important
hormone in Ca2+ homeostasis

51
 Skema di samping
menunjukkan peranan
calsitonin (garis hijau),
hormon parathyroid (garis
biru) dan calsitriol (garis
oranye) dalam hemostasis
calsium. Dalam kerjanya
mengatur kadar Ca2+
darah, calsitonin dan PTH
bersifat antagonis

1. Chief cell: most common, small

polygonal cells with acidophilic
cytoplasm; secrete parathyroid
hormone
2. Oxyphil cell: less common, larger,
acidophilic cytoplasm; function
unknown, may be a different
physiological state of chief cell
52
 PARATHYROID GLAND

Innervation, Vascularization: same as thyroid gland.

Function:
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH) – raises the level of
calcium in the blood, decreases levels of blood phosphate.
Partially antagonistic to calcitonin of thyroid gland.

53
 ADRENAL GLAND
Location : on cranial (superior) surface) of kidney
(“suprarenal” gland). Have inner medulla and outr cortex.

Development:
Adrenal cortex – mesoderm of posterior abdominal wall.
Adrenal medulla – neural crest cells that are derived from
adjacent sympathetic ganglion.

Innervation: adjacent sympathetic fibers. No

parasympathetic innervation.

Arterial Supply: adrenal arteries

Venous Drainage: adrenal veins

54
 ADRENAL GLAND

1. Terdapat sepasang glandula suprarenalis, yang masing-

masing melekat di polus superior ginjal, dibalut lemak
perirenal
2. Bentuk piramidal pipih, saat dewasa, masing-masing
berukuran tinggi 3-5 cm, lebar 2-3 cm, dan tebal kurang
dari 1 cm, serta berat 3.5-5 gr (saat lahir separohnya)
3. Selama perkembangan embrional, gland. Adrenal
berdiferensiasi menjadi dua bagian dengan fungsi yang
berbeda, yaitu regio besar di bagian perifer (80-90%
bagian) disebut cortex dan bagian kecil central disebut
medula.
4. Capsule tersusun oleh jar. Ikat padat irregular
5. Capsule membentuk septa/trabeculae
6. Stroma tdr dari fibra reticularis & fibroblast
55
 Adrenal Cortex layers
 The bulk of the adrenal gland is the
adrenal cortex. It has layers, from
superficial to deep: “GFR”
 G = Zona glomerulosa: makes
aldosterone
 F = Zona fasciculate
 R = Zona reticularis
◦ The zona fasciculate and zona
reticularis both make sex
hormones and cortisol
 (Don’t confuse this mnemonic with
“GFR” in the kidney, which stands for
glomerular filtration rate)

56
 Figure 16.14 Microscopic structure of the adrenal gland.

Hormones
Capsule secreted
Zona
glomerulosa Aldosterone

Zona
fasciculata
Adrenal gland
Cortex

• Medulla
• Cortex
Cortisol
and
androgens
Kidney

Zona
reticularis
Medulla

Adrenal
medulla Epinephrine
and
norepinephrine

Drawing of the histology of the Photomicrograph (115x)

adrenal cortex and a portion of
the adrenal medulla

MDufilho 7/6/2012 57
GLANDULAE ADRENAL
1. Cortex berasal dari mesoderma
2. Medulla berasal dari crista neuralis
(ectoderm)
3. Kedua regio tsb. sangat vasculer
4. Cortex adrenal dibagi 3 lapisan, zona
glomerulosa (Aldosteron &
mineralokortikoid), zona fasciculata
(Glucocorticoid dan sebagian androgen),
dan zona reticularis memproduksi
hormon Glucocorticoid dan sebagian
androgen
5. sedangkan medula memproduksi
katekolamin, NE, epinefrin, dan
sebagian kecil dopamin.

58
Chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla ~ GLANDULAE ADRENAL
Postganglionic sympathetic neurons
Vascularisasi

59
 ADRENAL GLAND
Adrenal Cortex, Function :
MINERALOCORTICOIDS – regulate sodium retention
and potassium loss.
GLUCOCORTICOIDS – act as anti-inflammatory agents;
affect metabolism of food.
ANDROGENS – regulates control over rapid growth
spurts in preadolescents.

Adrenal Medulla, Function :

ADRENALINE (EPINEPHRINE) – increases heart rate
and blood pressure.
NORADRENALINE (NOREPINEPHRINE) – constricts
arterioles.

60
 Figure 16.17 Stress and the adrenal gland.
Short-term stress Prolonged stress
Stress

Nerve impulses Hypothalamus

CRH (corticotropin-
releasing hormone)

Spinal cord

Corticotropic cells
of anterior pituitary
Preganglionic To target in blood
sympathetic
fibers
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla (secretes steroid
(secretes amino acid– hormones)
based hormones) ACTH

Catecholamines
Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids
(epinephrine and
norepinephrine)
Short-term stress response Long-term stress response
• Heart rate increases • Kidneys retain • Proteins and fats converted
• Blood pressure increases sodium and water to glucose or broken down
• Bronchioles dilate • Blood volume and for energy
• Liver converts glycogen to glucose and releases blood pressure • Blood glucose increases
glucose to blood rise • Immune system
• Blood flow changes, reducing digestive system activity supressed
and urine output
• Metabolic rate increases

MDufilho 7/6/2012 61
 Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones)
 Most weak androgens (male sex
hormones) converted to testosterone in
tissue cells, some to estrogens
 May contribute to
◦ Onset of puberty
◦ Appearance of secondary sex characteristics
◦ Sex drive in women
◦ Estrogens in postmenopausal women

MDufilho 7/6/2012 62
 Gonadocorticoids
 Hypersecretion
◦ Adrenogenital syndrome (masculinization)
◦ Not noticeable in adult males
◦ Females and prepubertal males
 Boys – reproductive organs mature; secondary sex
characteristics emerge early
 Females – beard, masculine pattern of body hair;
clitoris resembles small penis

MDufilho 7/6/2012 63
 PANCREAS
Location : inside notch of duodenum; retroperitoneal.
Has body, and tail. Tail crosses midline and comes in
contact with middle third of left kidney.

Development: outgrowth of embryonic foregut. Dorsal

and ventral embryonic buds eventually fuse.

Innervation: foregut: sympathetic – greater splanchnic

nerve; parasympathetic – Vagus nerve (X).

Arterial Supply: pancreaticododenal (branch of celiac)

artery

Venous Drainage: pancreaticoduodenal vein is tributary

of splenic vein
64
65
Pancreas
• Ingat, bahwa pancreas adalah glandula exocrin dan sekaligus
sebagai glandula endokrin.
• Glandula eksokrin mengelilingi ductus di mana sel-sel tersebut
mengeluarkan pancreatic juice (enzim) yang digunakan untuk
proses pencernaan di dalam duodenum.
• Sel-sel endokrin pancreas terdapat di dalam kelompok/
clusters/area tertentu yang disebut pulau-pulau langerhan/ISLETS
OF LANGERHANS (pancreatic islets).
• Yang penting untuk diingat adalah, di dalamnya terdapat sel-sel
alpha dan beta. Sel-sel alpha menghasilkan glukagon, hormon
yang akan meningkatkan kadar gula darh apabila kadar gula
mendadak turun dari normal. Sedangkan sel-sel beta
menghasilkan insulin, yang bekerja menurunkan kadar gula
apabila mendadak naik dari normal.
• Satu dari organ target hormon insulin dan glukagon adalah hepar,
disinilah pengaturan glukosa sangat penting (lebih lanjut baca
biokimia).
66
Pancreas
Sel-sel Acini (99%) Mensekresi enzym
dan cairan
GLAND. pencernaan
Sel-sel glandula EKSOKRIN (pancreatic Juice)
Epitelial (claster)

Pancreatic islets (1%) Sel A (17%) -> Glukagon

Sel B (70%) -> insulin
GLAND. Sel D (sedikit) -> somatostatin
Pancreatic islets ENDOKRIN Sel F (sisanya) -> polipeptida

Sel-sel acinus

67
 OVARY
Location : near kidneys, anchored by fallopian tubes
to uterus.

Development: intermediate mesoderm. Ovaries

migrate somewhat caudally, retain position near
kidneys.

Innervation: sympathetic – similar to hindgut, level

T12, follows least splanchnic nerve; parasympathetic
– sacral outflow

Arterial Supply: ovarian artery, branch of abdominal

aorta.

Venous Drainage: ovarian vein, dump into inferior

vena cava. 68
69
 OVARY
Function: ovaries produce ova (eggs; singular ovum)
in regular cycle determined by hormonal secretions
(covered in later lectures). Functions of ovarian
hormones and their secretions are tied to secretion
of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary gland.

ESTROGENS – stimulate development of female sex

organs and sexual characteristics.
PROGESTERONE + ESTROGENS – regulate
menstrual cycle; maintain pregnancy in presence of
developing embryo or fetus.

70
Ovarium
FOLIKEL OVARII mengasilkan estrogen, sedang CORPUS LUTEUM
menghasilkan estrogens & progesterone. Estrogens dan
progesterone merangsang perkembangan dan memelihara tanda-
tanda kelamin wanita, mengatur siklus menstruasi, menyiapkan
endometrium untuk implantasi embrio, dan menjaga kehamilan

28-71 71
Maturation of Follicle and Oocyte

72
Corpus
luteum

73
Menstrual Cycle

74
Hormone Regulation during
Menstrual Cycle

75
Perubahan hormonal selama hamil
PLACENTA di dalam uterus
wanita hamil, merupakan organ
endokrin juga. Pada awal
kehamilan, plasenta
menghasilkan human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG), yang
bekerja menjaga CORPUS
LUTEUM di mana corpus luteum
sebagai penghasil estrogen and
progesterone selama
kehamilan. Sedang, pada
kehamilan akhir plasenta
mengambil alih corpus luteum
sebagai penghasil estrogen &
progesterone. Estrogens &
progesterone berfungsi menjaga
endometrium selama kehamilan
dan menyiapkan glandula
mammae untuk memproduksi
susu (ASI)

76
 TESTES
Responsible for sperm production and synthesis of
male sex hormones.

Location : in postnatal ales, in scrotal sac, connected

to inner workings of body by spermatic cord.

Development: from intermediate mesoderm.

• As a transitory stage of kidney degenerates, a ligament called
the GUBERNACULUM descends on each side of abdomen
from inferior pole of gonad.
• Gubernaculum passes obliquely through developing anterior
abdominal wall at site of future inguinal canal and attaches at
internal surface of labioscrotal swelling (future position of
scrotum in males or labium majorum in females).
• Gubernaculum is thought to guide descent of testes into
scrotum, and ultimately anchors testis to scrotal wall.

77
78
 TESTES
Innervation: sympathetic – similar to hindgut, level
T12, follows least splanchnic nerve, hook a ride down
spermatic cord via testicular blood vessels;
parasympathetic – sacral outflow.

Arterial Supply: testicular artery. Branches off of

abdominal aorta, however developmental proximity ot
kidney means they sometimes branch off of renal
artery. Arteries follow the developmental track of
testes, and can thus be very long.

Venous Drainage: testicular vein, dump into inferior

vena cava.

79
Testes

 Glandulae
◦ Exocrine
◦ Endocrine

Pada bangunan yang

disebut sel-sel intertisial/
INTERSTITIAL
ENDOCRINOCYTES
menghasilkan testosteron,
yang merangsang
pertumbuhan dan
memelihara tanda-tanda
kelamin laki-laki dan mengatur
produksi sperma.

80
 TESTES
Function: Responsible for sperm production and
synthesis of male sex hormones.

TESTOSTERONE – stimulate development of male sex

organs, secondary sexual characteristics, and
behavioral features. Functions of testosterone and its
secretion is tied to secretion of LH from anterior
pituitary gland.

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Regulation of Sex Hormone
Secretion

 Hypothalamus
releases
◦ GnRH or LHRH which
stimulates
 LH or ICSH to produce
testosterone
 FSH to stimulate sperm
cell formation
 Inhibin inhibits FSH
secretion from anterior
pituitary

82
Puberty and Testosterone
 Puberty  Testosterone
◦ Age at which individuals ◦ Produced by interstitial
become capable of cells, adrenal cortex and
sexual reproduction sustentacular cells
 Before puberty small
amounts of testosterone ◦ Causes development of
inhibit GnRH release male sex organs in
 During puberty embryo, stimulates
testosterone does not descent of testes, causes
completely suppress enlargement of genitals
GnRH release, resulting in
increased FSH,LH, and
and necessary for sperm
testosterone cell formation

83
Mammary Glands

 Organs of milk
production located
within mammae or
breasts
◦ Consist of glandular
lobes and adipose tissue
◦ Cooper’s ligaments
support the breasts

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 Developmental Aspects
 Hormone-producing glands arise from all three
germ layers
 Most endocrine organs operate well until old
age
 Exposure to pesticides, industrial chemicals,
arsenic, dioxin, and soil and water pollutants
disrupts hormone function
 Sex hormones, thyroid hormone, and
glucocorticoids are vulnerable to the effects of
pollutants
 Interference with glucocorticoids may help
explain high cancer rates in certain areas

MDufilho 7/6/2012 85
 Developmental Aspects
 Ovaries undergo significant changes with
age and become unresponsive to
gonadotropins; problems associated with
estrogen deficiency occur
 Testosterone also diminishes with age, but
effect is not usually seen until very old age

MDufilho 7/6/2012 86
 Developmental Aspects
 GH levels decline with age - accounts for
muscle atrophy with age
 TH declines with age, contributing to
lower basal metabolic rates
 PTH levels remain fairly constant with
age, but lack of estrogen in older women
makes them more vulnerable to bone-
demineralizing effects of PTH

MDufilho 7/6/2012 87