INTRO TO SPACE COURSE
ORBITAL MECHANICS !!
Colorado Springs Cadet Squadron
Lt Col M. T. McNeely
ORBITAL MECHANICS
Lesson 1
Origins
Physical Laws
Requirements for Injection
Classifications of Orbits
Coordinate Reference Systems
Orbital Elements
Ground Tracks
Perturbations
Launch Considerations
ORIGINS
Nicholas Copernicus
Revived Helio-centric model
Believed planetary orbits were circles
ORIGINS
Tycho Brahe
Introduced precision into
astronomical
measurements
Mentor to Johannes
Kepler
ORIGINS
Johannes Kepler
Derived 3 laws based
upon his observations of
planetary motion
PHYSICAL LAWS
Kepler’s 1st Law: Law of Ellipses
The orbits of the planets are ellipses with
the sun at one focus
PHYSICAL LAWS
Ellipses
Period (T)
Semi-Minor
Axis (b)
Semi-Major Axis (a)
FOCI
PHYSICAL LAWS
PHYSICAL LAWS
Kepler’s 2nd Law: Law of Equal Areas
The line joining the planet to the center of the sun
sweeps out equal areas in equal times
T4 T3
T5
T2
A4 A3
A5 A2 T1
A1
T6 A6
PHYSICAL LAWS
Kepler’s 2nd Law: Law of Equal Areas
PHYSICAL LAWS
Kepler’s 2nd Law: Law of Equal Areas
t2
t1
Area 2 Area 1
t0
t3
t1-t0 = t3-t2
Area 1 = Area 2
Satellite travels at varying speeds
PHYSICAL LAWS
Kepler’s 3rd Law: Law of Harmonics
The squares of the periods of
two planets’ orbits are
proportional to each other as
the cubes of their semi-
major axes:
T12/T22 = a13/a23
In English:
Orbits with the same semi-
major axis will have the
same period
ORBITAL MECHANICS
Lesson 1
Origins
Physical Laws
Requirements for Injection
Classifications of Orbits
Coordinate Reference Systems
Orbital Elements
Ground Tracks
Perturbations
Launch Considerations
PHYSICAL LAWS
Newton’s 1st Law: Law of Inertia
Every body continues in a state of uniform
motion unless it is compelled to change that
state by a force imposed upon it
PHYSICAL LAWS
Newton’s 2nd Law: Law of Momentum
Change in momentum is proportional to and
in the direction of the force applied
Momentum equals mass x velocity
Change in momentum gives: F = ma
F
PHYSICAL LAWS
Newton’s 3rd Law: Action - Reaction
Forevery action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction
Hints at conservation of momentum
PHYSICAL LAWS
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
Between any two objects there exists a force of
attraction that is proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them
M1m2
Fg = G D2 ( )
ORBITAL MECHANICS
Lesson 1
Origins
Physical Laws
Requirements for Injection
Classifications of Orbits
Coordinate Reference Systems
Orbital Elements
Ground Tracks
Perturbations
Launch Considerations
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS
Speed
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS
Speed
5m
8 km
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS
Speed
17,500 mi/hr
100 miles
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS
Altitude
Are you moving FASTER or SLOWER the
higher your altitude?
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS
Altitude
3E
VC = 4.56 km/s
2E
G(m1+m2)
VC = a VC = 5.59 km/s
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS
Altitude
VE = VC 2
= 7.91 km/s 2E
V < 7.91 km/s
V > 7.91 km/s
VC = 5.59 km/s
INJECTION REQUIREMENTS
Direction
ORBITAL MECHANICS
Lesson 1
Origins
Physical Laws
Requirements for Injection
Classifications of Orbits
Coordinate Reference Systems
Orbital Elements
Ground Tracks
Perturbations
Launch Considerations
ORBIT CLASSIFICATION
Size/Period
Location
Shape
ORBIT CLASSIFICATION
Size/Period
Definedby semi-major axis (a)
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
High Earth Orbit (HEO)
Semi-synchronous Orbit
Geo-synchronous Orbit
ORBIT CLASSIFICATION
Location
Equatorial
Polar
ORBIT CLASSIFICATION
Shape (Conic Sections)
Circle
Ellipse
ORBIT CLASSIFICATION
Shape (Conic Sections)
Trajectories:
Parabola
Hyperbola
ORBIT CLASSIFICATIONS
Circular Orbits
Characteristics
– Constant speed
– Nearly constant altitude
Typical Missions
– Reconnaissance/Weather (DMSP)
– Manned
– Navigational (GPS)
– Geo-synchronous (Comm sats)
ORBIT CLASSIFICATIONS
Elliptical Orbits
Characteristics
– Varying speed
– Varying altitude
– Asymmetric Ground Track
Typical Missions
– Deep space surveillance (Pioneer)
– Communications (Polar comm.)
– Ballistic Missiles
ORBIT CLASSIFICATIONS
Parabolic/Hyperbolic Trajectories
Characteristics
– Escaped Earth’s gravitational
influence
– Heliocentric
Typical Missions
– Interplanetary exploration (Galileo,
Phobos, Magellan)
ORBIT CLASSIFICATIONS
Orbit Geometry
Eccentricity = c/a a
Perigee
Apogee
c c
ORBIT CLASSIFICATIONS
Eccentricity
e=0
e=1
0<e<1 e>1
ORBIT CLASSIFICATIONS
Eccentricity
Eccentricity = c/a
c=0 c
a
a
e=0 0<e<1
ORBIT CLASSIFICATIONS
Eccentricity
e = 0.75
e = .45
e=0
Eccentricity = c/a
ORBITAL MECHANICS
Lesson 1
Origins
Physical Laws
Requirements for Injection
Classifications of Orbits
Coordinate Reference Systems
Orbital Elements
Ground Tracks
Perturbations
Launch Considerations
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Defines positions and directions in a
consistent manner -- allows communication
Facilitates the description of a satellite’s
position and subsequent motion
Proper choice of reference determines the
utility of a coordinate system
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Ordinates
Origin
– Where you’re starting from
Fundamental Plane
– Plane which you’re measuring in
Principle Direction
– Direction which you’re measuring from
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Classifications
Inertial
– Non-rotating
– Time Independent
Non-inertial
– Rotating
– Time Dependent
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Examples
Geographic
Topocentric
Geocentric Inertial
Orbit Inertial
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Geographic
Purpose: To locate points on the Earth’s
surface
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Topocentric
Purpose: To locate a satellite with respect
to a specific point on the Earth
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Topocentric
Elevation
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Topocentric
Azimuth
Range
Origin: Antenna
FP: Local Horizon
PD: True North
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Geocentric Inertial
Purpose: To determine the exact orientation of an
orbital plane and to locate points in space with
respect to the Earth
Ecliptic Plane
Equatorial
Vernal Equinox Plane
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Geocentric Inertial
Inclination
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Geocentric Inertial
Direction of
Satellite motion
Vernal
Equinox
Ascending Node
Right Ascension
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Orbit Inertial
Purpose: To fix the satellite orbit in the
orbital plane
Perigee
Argument of
Perigee
Ascending Node
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Review
Geographic
– Locates a point on the Earth’s surface
– Requires Latitude and Longitude
Topocentric
– Locates a satellite with respect to a site
– Requires Azimuth, Elevation, Range
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Review
Geocentric Inertial
– Locates orbital plane with respect to the Earth
– Requires Right Ascension and Inclination
Orbit Inertial
– Locate orbit within orbital plane
– Requires Argument of Perigee
ORBITAL MECHANICS
Lesson 1
Origins
Physical Laws
Requirements for Injection
Classifications of Orbits
Coordinate Reference Systems
Orbital Elements
Ground Tracks
Perturbations
Launch Considerations
ORBITAL ELEMENTS
Definition
A setof mathematical parameters that
enables us to accurately describe satellite
motion
ORBITAL ELEMENTS
Purpose
Discriminate one satellite from other
satellites
Predict where a satellite will be in the
future or has been in the past
Determine amount and direction of
maneuver or perturbation
ORBITAL ELEMENTS
Keplerian Elements
Semi-Major Axis (Size)
Eccentricity (Shape)
Inclination
Right Ascension (Orientation)
Argument of Perigee
Epoch Time (Location within orbit)
– True Anomaly
ORBITAL ELEMENTS
Keplerian Elements: Inclination
Equatorial Plane
Inclination ( i )
Orbital Plane
ORBITAL ELEMENTS
Keplerian Elements: Right Ascension
First Point of
Aries () Right Ascension of the
Ascending Node ()
ORBITAL ELEMENTS
Keplerian Elements: Argument of Perigee
Argument of
Perigee ()
ORBITAL ELEMENTS
Keplerian Elements: True Anomaly
Direction of True
satellite motion Anomaly ()
ORBITAL ELEMENTS
Keplerian Elements: True Anomaly
i
ORBITAL ELEMENTS
Keplerian Elements: Inclination
Prograde:
0 i < 90
Equatorial: i = 0 or 180
Retrograde:
Polar: i = 90
90 i ú 180
ORBITAL MECHANICS
Lesson 1
Origins
Physical Laws
Requirements for Injection
Classifications of Orbits
Coordinate Reference Systems
Orbital Elements
Ground Tracks
Perturbations
Launch Considerations
Ground Tracks
Westward Regression
- Earth rotates east under a satellite => satellite
appears to walk west
- Earth rotates 360 degrees in 24 hours
(15 degrees per hour)
Ground Tracks
Westward Regression
C B A
-120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60
A - time zero
B - after one orbit
C - after two orbits
Ground tracks
Inclination
60
45N
30
30
45S
60
Inclination = 45 degrees
Eccentricity ~ 0
Ground Tracks
Eccentricity
Ground Track for Molnyia orbit
eccentricity = .7252
ORBITAL MECHANICS
Lesson 1
Origins
Physical Laws
Requirements for Injection
Classifications of Orbits
Coordinate Reference Systems
Orbital Elements
Ground Tracks
Perturbations
Launch Considerations
PERTURBATIONS
Definition
– A disturbance in the regular motion of a
satellite
Types
– Gravitational
– Atmospheric Drag
– Third Body Effects
– Solar Wind/Radiation Effects
– Electro-magnetic
PERTURBATIONS
Gravitational: Libration
Ellipticity
of the Earth causes gravity
wells and hills
Stable points: 75E and 105W
-- Himalayas and Rocky Mountains
Unstable points: 165E and 5W
-- Marshall Islands and Portugal
Drives the requirement for
stationkeeping
PERTURBATIONS
Electro-Magnetic
Interaction between the Earth’s magnetic
field and the satellite’s electro-magnetic
field results in magnetic drag
ORBITAL MECHANICS
Lesson 1
Origins
Physical Laws
Requirements for Injection
Classifications of Orbits
Coordinate Reference Systems
Orbital Elements
Ground Tracks
Perturbations
Launch Considerations
LAUNCH CONSIDERATIONS
Launch Windows
The period of time during which a
satellite can be launched directly into a
specific orbital plane from a specific
launch site
Window duration driven by safety, fuel
requirements, desired injection points,
etc.
Window is centered around optimal
launch time
PLACING SATELLITES IN ORBIT
Booster Types
DELTA II
PLACING SATELLITES IN ORBIT
Booster Types
ATLAS 2AS
PLACING SATELLITES IN ORBIT
Booster Types
TITAN IV
PLACING SATELLITES IN ORBIT
Booster Types
TAURUS
PLACING SATELLITES IN ORBIT
Booster Types
The
SHUTTLE
BOOSTER
PLACING SATELLITES IN ORBIT
Booster Types
PEGASUS
PLACING SATELLITES IN ORBIT
Launch Constraints
