Chapter 10
Leadership & Organizational
Change
Motivation
Motivation
inner force that activates or moves a person
toward achievement of a goal.
Needs →Drives or motivates →Achievement of goals
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Motivation
Physical needs
innate or primary needs (food, water,
shelter).
Psychological needs
acquired needs, those we learn in response
to culture or environment (esteem, affection,
power).
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Motivation
Positive goal
desirable & the object of directed behavior.
Negative goal
undesirable & behavior is directed away
from it.
Both needs & goals are interdependent.
Needs & goals are constantly changing.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Motivation & Work Performance
Individuals who are blocked in attempts to
satisfy their needs may exhibit:
Withdrawal
Aggression
Substitution
Compensation
Revert or regress
Repression
Projection
Rationalization
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
McClelland’s Achievement-Power-
Affiliation Theory
Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory
Expectancy Theory
Reinforcement Theory
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
People are motivated by their desire to satisfy
specific needs:
Physiological – needs of the body to sustain life.
Safety – protection of individuals from physical or
psychological harm.
Social – needs for love, affection, belonging.
Esteem – feelings of self-respect & self-worth.
Self-actualization – desire to fulfill one’s potential.
Prepotent need – a need that is dominant over
all others.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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McClelland’s Achievement-Power-
Affiliation Theory
All people have a need:
to achieve
for power
for affiliation
Achievement – desire to do something better
or more efficiently than it was done before.
Power – a concern for influencing people.
Affiliation – desire to be liked by others & to
establish or maintain friendly relationships.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Motivators
Factors for job satisfaction
Related to content of the job
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Advancement
The work itself
Potential for growth
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Increase in Motivators can be used to
increase job satisfaction
Absence of Maintenance or Hygiene
factors will cause job dissatisfaction
Increase in Maintenance or Hygiene
factors will not increase job satisfaction
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Expectancy Theory
Explains behavior in terms of an individual’s
goals, choices, & expectations of achieving
these goals.
Assumes people can:
Determine the outcomes they prefer.
Make realistic estimates of their chances.
People are motivated to work:
If they believe their efforts will be rewarded.
If they value the rewards that are offered (valence).
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Reinforcement Theory
Associated with work by Skinner
Also called operant conditioning or
behavior modification.
Consequences of past actions influence
future actions in a cyclical learning
process.
Reinforced behavior will be repeated;
behavior that is not reinforced is less
likely to be repeated.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Job Satisfaction
An individual’s feelings & beliefs about
their job.
Components of job satisfaction:
Personality
Values
Work situation
Social influence
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Job Satisfaction
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCB)
Positive, voluntary, behaviors that enhance
organizational efficiency.
Affective Organizational Commitment
commitment to an organization because one is
happy to be working for the organization, believes in
the organization, & wants to do what is best for the
organization.
Continuous Organizational Commitment
commitment to an organization only because the
cost of leaving is too great.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Leadership
Process of influencing activities of an
individual or group toward achieving
organizational goals.
Effective leader can influence people to
strive willingly for group objectives.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Traditional Power Structure
Power
means by which a leader influences the
behaviors of followers.
Position power
derived from position in an organization.
Personal power
comes from personal attributes & expertise.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Bases of Power
Legitimate
comes from formal position in organization
Reward
comes from leader’s ability to reward others
Coercive
comes from leader’s authority to punish those who
do not comply
Expert
held by leaders who are viewed as being
competent in their job
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Bases of Power
Referent
based on identification of followers with a leader
Information
based on leader’s possession of or access to
information that others perceive as valuable.
Connection
based on the leader’s connections with influential or
important persons.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Evolving Power Structure
Title & rank will be less important factors
in success.
More important will be knowledge, skills,
and sensitivity to mobilize people and
motivate them to do their best.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Philosophies of Human Nature
McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y
Theory X
Work distasteful to people
People are not ambitious
People have little capacity for creativity
Most people must be closely controlled
People must be coerced to achieve
objectives
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Philosophies of Human Nature
McGregor’s Theory X & Theory Y
Theory Y
Work is natural as play
People are self motivated
Creativity is common among people
Motivation at esteem and self actualization
levels
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Philosophies of Human Nature
Argyris’s Immaturity-Maturity Theory
Immaturity Maturity
Passive Increased activity
Dependence Independence
Behave in few ways Behave in many ways
Shallow interests Deep, strong interests
Short time perspective Long time perspective
Lack of self control Control over self
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Leadership Effectiveness
Effective leaders influence others.
Formal leaders – formal authority to
exert influence on others.
Informal leaders – may have no formal
job authority, yet may exert considerable
influence because of special skills or
talents.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Trait Concepts in Leadership
Characteristics for effective leaders:
Character Passion
Charisma Positive attitude
Commitment Problem solving
Communication Relationships
Competence Responsibility
Courage Security
Discernment Self-discipline
Focus Servanthood
Generosity Teachability
Initiative Vision
Listening
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Trait Concepts in Leadership
Strongest leadership relationship traits:
Intelligence
Task-relevant knowledge
Dominance
Self-confidence
Energy/activity level
Tolerance for stress
Integrity & honesty
Emotional maturity
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Basic Leadership Styles
Basic styles:
Autocratic – makes most decisions.
Laissez-faire – allows the group to make the
decisions.
Democratic – guides & encourages the
group to make decisions.
Different leadership styles are effective
in different situations.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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University of Michigan Leadership
Studies
Designed to characterize leadership
effectiveness.
Major concepts of leadership:
Employee orientation – emphasis on the
human relations part of their job.
Product orientation – emphasis on
performance & the more technical
characteristics of work.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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University of Michigan Leadership
Studies
High-production supervisor traits:
Receive general rather than close
supervision from their superiors
Spend more time in supervision
Give general rather than close supervision
of their employees
Are employee oriented rather than
production oriented.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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University of Michigan Leadership
Studies
Management styles:
Exploitive autocratic – employees motivated by
fear, threats, & punishment.
Benevolent autocratic - employees make certain
minor decisions, & upward communication is
generally ignored.
Consultative – information flows up & down, but all
major decisions come from the top.
Participative - operates on the basis of trust &
responsibility.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Ohio State Leadership Studies
Dimensions of leadership behavior:
Consideration – behavior that:
Expresses friendship
Develops mutual trust & respect
Develops strong interpersonal relationships with
subordinates
Initiating structure – behavior that defines work &
establishes well-defined communication patterns &
clear relationships between the leader &
subordinate.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Ohio State Leadership Studies
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Leadership Grid
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Situational & Contingency
Approaches
Emphasizes leadership skills, behavior,
& roles dependent on the situation.
Behavior of effective leaders in one
setting may be substantially different
from that in another.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Leadership Continuum
Forces affecting appropriate leadership:
Forces in the manager
Forces in subordinates or nonmanagers
Forces in the situation
Forces differ in strength & interaction in
different situations.
Manager employs a variety of
approaches, which are dependent on the
forces operating in a particular situation.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Leadership Continuum
Encourages participative approaches to
decision making.
Benefits of participative styles:
Raise employees’ motivational level
Increase willingness to change
Improve quality of decisions
Develop teamwork & morale
Further the individual development of
employees
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Contingency Approach
Major situational variables:
Leader-member relations – personal relations with
member of the group.
Task structure- degree of structure in the task
assigned to the group.
Position power – authority & power a leader’s
position provides.
Favorableness of a situation – degree to which
the situation enables the leader to exert
influence over the group.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Leader Effectiveness Model
Task behavior – the extent to which the
leader engages in spelling out the duties &
responsibilities of an individual or group.
Relationship behavior – the extent to which
the leader engages in two-way or multi-way
communication.
Readiness – desire for achievement based
on:
Challenging but attainable goals
Willingness & ability to accept responsibility
Education or experience & skills relevant to a
particular task
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Path-Goal Leadership Model
Focuses on the leader’s effect on the
subordinate’s motivation to perform.
Assumes that individuals react rationally
in pursuing certain goals because those
goals ultimately result in highly valued
payoffs to the individual.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Path-Goal Leadership Model
Types of leadership behavior:
Directive – provides guidelines, setting definite
performance standards, & controlling behavior to
ensure adherence to rules.
Supportive – being friendly & showing concern for
subordinates’ well-being & needs.
Achievement oriented – setting challenging goals
& seeking to improve performance.
Participative – sharing information, consulting with
employees, & emphasizing group decision making.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Path-Goal Leadership Model
Situational factors:
Locus of control – tendency of people to rely
on internal or external sources.
Characteristics of the work environment –
structure & complexity of the task.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Transformational Leadership
Inspires followers to become motivated
to work toward organizational rather than
personal gain.
Occurs when followers:
Trust the leader
Perform behaviors that contribute to the
achievement of organizational goals
Perform at a high level
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Transactional Leadership
Focuses on clarifying roles and
responsibilities
Uses rewards and punishment to
achieve goals
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Transformational Leadership
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Emerging Leadership Competencies
Emotional intelligence
extent to which a person is in tune with their
own feelings & the feelings of others.
Social intelligence
ability to determine the requirements for
leadership in a particular situation & select
the appropriate response.
Metacognition
ability to learn & adapt to change.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Spears & Gregoire
Implications of Leadership Theories
Successful leaders have either:
Analyzed situational factors & adapted their
leadership style to them.
Altered the factors to match their style.
No one best style of leadership exists.
Leadership is a function of forces in the
leader, the followers, & the situation.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Implications of Leadership Theories
Effective leaders:
Develop & provide a complete vision
Earn & return trust
Listen & communicate effectively
Persevere when others give up
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Spears & Gregoire
Implications of Leadership Theories
Keys to effective leadership:
Develop a vision
Trust your subordinates
Encourage risk
Simplify
Keep your cool
Invite dissent
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Spears & Gregoire
Comparison of Management &
Leadership
Management:
About coping with complexities.
Organizes & staffs people to achieve goals.
Controls people by pushing them in the right
direction.
Leadership:
About coping with change.
Focuses on aligning people toward goals.
Motivates people by satisfying basic human needs.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Comparison of Management &
Leadership
Managers are appointed to their position.
Leaders may be appointed, or they may
emerge from the group.
Leaders are able to influence without
having formal authority.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Spears & Gregoire
Personal & Organizational Change
Change
the movement from one state to another.
Effective managers & leaders accept that
chance should & will occur.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Personal Change
Examination of one’s personal
characteristics
Development and execution of plans to
change one or more of those
characteristics
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Personal Change
Covey’s Seven Habits
Be proactive
Begin with the end in mind
Put first things first
Think win/win
Seek first to understand…then to be
understood
Synergize
Sharpen the saw
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Organizational Change
Substantive modification to some part of the
organization
Forces include:
Competition
Governmental laws & regulations
Economic & political pressures
Technology
Employee attitudes
Workforce demographics
Introduction of new equipment
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Organizational Change
Change Agent
person who initiates change.
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
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Successful Change Guidelines
Who Moved My Cheese Guidelines:
Change happens
Anticipate change
Monitor change
Adapt to change quickly
Change
Enjoy change
Be ready to change quickly & enjoy it again
©2004 Pearson Education, Inc. Foodservice Organizations, 5th edition
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 Spears & Gregoire
