THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Lecture - X
FUNCTION OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Preparation of food for absorption

mechanical and chemical break down,
(digestion, hydrolysis)
2. Absorption of nutrients
3. Elimination of undigested & unabsorbed food
Stages of Food Processing

• Ingestion
– the act of eating or ingesting
• Digestion
– process of breaking food into small enough
molecules for the body to absorb
• Absorption
– process of absorbing small molecules from
the digestive compartment into bloodstream
• Egestion/elimintion
– act of eliminating undigested materials from
the
digestive compartment
 Organs of
digestive
system:
1. Mouth
2. Digestive
tract
3. Gland

Human digestive system

(Campbell, 6th edition)
1. Mouth and Oral cavity

1. Lips
2. Jaws with teeth
3. Palatoglosal arch
4. Palatine tonsil
5. Uvula
6. Fauces
7. Tongue
8. Opening of
Oral cavity (cavum oris): surounded by submandibular ducts
tunica mucossa consisted of stratified
squamous epithelia
Lips (Labia oris)
1. Facies externa + rubrum labii
a. Epidermis
b. Papila corii
c. Sudorifera & sebacea
glands
d. Hair follicles
2. Facies interna
a. [Link] cavum oris
b. Nonkeratinized Stratified
squamous epithelium
c. Connective tissue with
glandula labialis
Tongue (lingua)
a. Mucosa upper surface
– Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
– Papillae, some with taste buds
– Lamina propria, very dense ( connects to muscle layers.)
b. Mucosa lower surface
– Non-keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
– NO papillae
– Lamina propria connects to sub mucosa
c. Sub-mucosa
– Not on the upper surface
– well developed on the under side (layer of loose fibroelastic connective tissue)
– Glands, mucous and serous
– Lingual tonsils - single grypt at base of tongue, numerous lymphoid nodules
d. Muscularis externa
– Skeletal muscle fibers
– Muscle bundles which run in three planes. (Major characteristic)
Tongue Papilae

• Filiform - cone shaped, Keratin, NO taste buds

• Fungiform - mushroom shaped, scattered taste
buds on the surface
• Foliate - Closely packed folds, numerous taste
buds, lateral margins
• Circumvallate - Large circular, taste buds on
lateral margins
- serous and mucous galnds at base
- wash food out of taste buds
- 7-12 in V position, posteror of tongue
 TONGUE
Fungiform and filiform papillae

Human, Zenker's fluid, phosphotungstic acid hematoxylin, 26 x.

9
 FOLIATE PAPILLA

Rabbit, 10% formalin, H. & E., 66 x.

10
 TONGUE
Circum vallate
papilla

Human, Zenker's fluid, phosphotungstic acid hematoxylin stain, 26 x.

11
Lingual Glands: A. Mucous gland, B. Serous gland

A B

Human, Zenker's fluid, iron hematoxylin and aldehyde fuchsin stains, 162 x.
Teeth
a. CROWN
• Enamel Corona
• Dentin dentis
• Pulp cavity

b. NECK

a. ROOT (RADIX)
• Dentin
• Root canal
• cementum

13
i. Enamel
– The hardest part of the body
– Composition: 97% Ca ( anorganic compound: Ca
phosphate (90%), CaCO3, Mg phsphate, CaCl2);
organic compund 3% and water
– Matrix is secreted by ameloblast
– Enamel prisms or rods. Perpendicular to tooth
surface.
– No collagen
– Calcified ground interprismatic substance makes
up the thinner layer between adjacent prisms.
ii. Dentin
– structure and composition similar to the bone
– 72-80% anorganic compound (hydroxyapatite)
– 20% collagen fibers, glycosaminoglycans, Ca and water
– Granular layer of Tomes : an area of dentine just under
the cementum where the canal system is very
irregular.
– Cytoplasmic proccesus originated from odontoblast
(inside the pulp)  form radial thin canal
iii. Cementum
– Thin layer surounding the root
– 1/3 (upper) part is non cellular
– 2/3 (lower) part is composed of cementocyte (in
lacuna)
– structure and composition similar to the bone but
there is no Haverian canal and vasculature.
– The harverian canal apprear with age.
iv. Pulp
– Loose connective tissue, composed of blood vessels,
nerve fibers, collagen and reticuline fibers,
glycosaminoglycans, odontoblast and fibroblast.
–
– Myelinated axon extended to the tooth apex
Odontoblst form interbridges and terminal barr
v. Periodontalis membrane
– composed of dense connective tissue
– fiber penetrate into the cementumand bind to bone
wall (periostium of alveolar bone)

vi. Alveolar bone

– Immature bone structure, (Not lamellar)
– forms socket, blood vessels, nerves penetrate into
pulp cavity
– Bundles of Collage penetrate bone and cementum
Cat’s tooth (in situ) mandible: 10% formalin, decalcified, 4.6 x
18
 GROUND TOOTH

Human, ground nondecalcified, unstained, dark field, 6.0 x

19
Ginggiva
• Mucus membrane
• Composed of stratified squamous epithelium
• Cells bound to basement membrane by
hemidesmosomes
• Bound firmly to bone (the maxilla and mandibula) and
tooth enamel (cuticle)
• Epithelial attachment of Gotlieb (cuticle)
• the epithelium is connected to the enamel by a basal
membrane
• There is a narrow pit between enamel and the
epithelium surounding the crown  ginggival sulcus
From mouth to stomach: the swallowing reflex and
esophageal peristalsis
Pharynx
Structure:
• Lamina Propria
• Infiltrated by limphoid cells – nodulus lymphaticus
• Tunica Mucosae
• Inervated and vascularised connective tissue --
PLEXUS NERVOSUS SUB MUCOUS MEISNER
• Network of blood vessel and nerve fibers between
tunica muscularis--PLEXUS NERVOSUS MYENTERICUS
AUERBACHI
– Dense connective tissue with elastine (more) and
collagen fibers (less)
– has striated muscle
Pharynx
• Nasopharynx: regio respiratoria
– Located above palatum molle
– Composed of cilliated collumar speudostratified
epithelium
• Oropharynx: regio digestoria
– Located behind the Arcus Glossopalatinus
– Composed of non-keratinised squamous complex
epitheium
• Laryngopharynx: regio digestoria
– Located between oropharynx and Hyoid cartilage
– Epithelium similar to that of nasopharynx and
oropharynx
2. Digestive Tract

a. Esophagus
b. Stomach (gaster)
c. Small intestine (duodenum, Illeum, yeyenum)
d. Large intestine (caecum, colon rectum)
e. Anus
Layers of the Digestive Tract
1) mucosa – produces mucus
a. epithelium-- villi (in particular part);
b. lamina propria
c. muscularis mucosa
2) submucosa –
a. Dense irregular connective tissue, nerves, blood vessels, lymphatics
b. Sub mucosal glands
c. Meisner's nerve plexes (parasympathetic ganglia)

3) muscularis externa –
a. Smooth muscle
b. 2 layers, inner circular, outer longitudinal
c. Auerbach's plexes (myenteric)
4) serosa – outer fibrous coating or visceral peritoneum
a. Mesothelium
b. Simple squamous & C.T.
c. Rich in blood vessels, lymph and some adipose
d. Adventitial - loose irregular C.T.
Histology of digestive tract
2.a. Esophagus

• 25 cm long
• muscularized passageway to stomach, two
sphincters : upper and lower
• peristalsis begins here
rhythmic waves of contraction by smooth
muscles in the wall of the canal
•
ruminants (cud-chewers), ruminating pouches,
chambers of esophagus where fermentation
occurs (cows produce 60 L saliva per day & burp
2 L gas/minute)
2.a. Esophagus
• Mucosa
– Epithelium = Stratified Squamous
– lamina propria
– muscularis mucosa
• Submucosa
– Small mucus secreting, submucosa. esophageal glands
– Human = numerous compound mucous glands
– [cat, the horse and rodents usually do not have them these]
• Muscularis externa
– Top third Voluntary, striated muscle tissue for swallowing
– Lower third smooth muscle
– Middle third mixed smooth and striated
meshed with connective tissue fibers.
• Adventitia
– Areolar Connective tissue and binds the esophagus to other organs.
– Replaced by a thin serosa in abdominal cavity
connective tissue covered by mesothelium.
2.a. Esophagus

Muscularls Mucosa
mucosae
Submu

co sa
ESOPHAGUS-STOMACH JUNCTION
Longitudinal section

30
 Stratified
squamous
epithelium

Lamina
propria

Muacularla
mucosae

Histology of Oesophagus
31
 ESOPHAGUS
Muscularis
externa

Myonterk::
(AUo<bochJ
~ii,.,lllif Pl•xus
Smooth muscle

COi~
c
ti.s;sue

32
2.b. Stomach
• Serves as mixing chamber and holding reservoir
• 4 main regions
– Cardia, fundus, body, pylorus
• Same 4 layers
– Mucosa – gastric glands open into gastric pits
• 3 types of exocrine gland cells – mucous neck cells
(mucus), parietal cells (intrinsic factor and HCl), and
chief cells (pepsinogen and gastric lipase)
• G cell – endocrine cell – secretes gastrin
– Submucosa
– Muscularis – additional 3rd inner oblique layer
– Serosa – part of visceral peritoneum

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

2.b. Stomach

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Circular muscle ayer

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Lesser curvature
Py oric sphinc er med a surface) Body
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Greater curv
Pyloric canal (latera surf
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Interior surface of stomach sphincter -.. ~ particle

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i. Stomach mucosa
1. Surface folds - Rugae
2. Surface Simple Columar epithelium; mucous secreting
different composition and mode of secretion from
intestinal goblet cells
Mucous nect (MN) cells extend into branched tubular
3. glands
4. Lamina propria, scanty, loose, areolar connective tissue.
Thick layer of gastric (principal) glands (surface covered
5. with "Gastric Pits“
Muscularis
two layersMucosae:
of muscle, tri laminar a third an inner circular, outer
sometimes
longitudinal.
 heavily meshed with connective tissue fibers.
Entrance o gastric
f pi
t Gastric glands

Muscu ar
} mucoS

l la
M

Histological features of gastric walls

37
Gastric Gland
• Glands: simple, branched tubular glands
• Cardiac Glands
– Mucous glands
– Lysozyme production
– Ferquently coiled terminal portion,
• Fundic Glands produce digestive enzymes and HCl
– Ismus mucous cells
– Mucous neck cells
– Parietal cell
– Chief cells - (Zymogen) pepsinogen, more in lower region of glands
– Argentifine Cells, enterochromaffin
– Paneth cells
• Pyloric Glands
– Deep gastic pits
– Mucus and some Lysozyme
– Gastrin (G) Cells
Fundic gland Pyloric gland Mucous nect

Perietal &
Chief Cells Paneth Cells
STOMACH  Chief and parietal cells

40
2.b. Stomach

ii. Submucosal connective tissue

– Dense concentration of collagen and elastic fibers.
– Infiltrated with Lymph and Mast Cells
– Meissner's Plexes [cytons near the muscularis externa].
iii. Muscularis externa
• Three layers of smooth muscle
• inner oblique
• middle circular
• outer longitudinal.
iv. Serosa
– mesothelium
– thin connective tissue
2.c. Small Intestine (Intestinum Tenue)

• digestion is completed here

• most enzymatic hydrolysis and adsorption occurs
here
• surface area of small intestine is 300 m2; about
the size of a double tennis court
• mucosa has fingerlike projections, villi, which
extend into the lumen
• the villi have microvilli (cytoplasmic projections
on the surface of epithelial cells) Figure 41.15
INTESTINUM TENUE

Duodenum Jejunum
Jejunum

43
2.c. Small Intestine
1) Intestinal Cell Types
– Absortive Cells
– Goblet Cells
– Argentifine Cells
– Paneth Cells
– Ganglion cells
2) Mucosa
– Specified in duodenum, yeyenum and ileium
3) Submucosa
– Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
– Ganglia of the submucosal plexus of Meissner
4) Muscularis externa.
– Smooth Muscle Layers, an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer.
– Between these two layers - Ganglia of the mesenteric plexus of Auerbach
5) Serosa
– Thin: compact layer of connective tissue
– Covered by mesothelium, outer surface (simple squamous epithelium)
Structure of the small intestine
2.c. Small Intestine

Duodenum: 8-10” 25-30cm

• Mucosa
– Sphincter of Oddi. pushes from outside through layers and
opens into lumen
– Villi: leaf form
– Entrance of the common Bile Duct (Liver, Pancreas)
• Submucosa
– Brunner's Glands
– Alkaline Mucous Glands
– Urogastron, hormone that prevents HCl secretion
– Compound tubular glands extend down into the submucosa.
– Found no where else in Intestines
2.c. Small Intestine

Jejunum: 8” (2/5 of the small intestine length)

– Mucosa
• Large Plicae
• Large, long slender villi (finger like form)
• More goblet cells.
• NO submucosal glands
Ileum: 12” (1/2 of the small intestine length)
– Mucosa
• Many more goblet cells
• Peyer's patches or intestinal tonsils (aggregates of lymph nodules)
• Nodules disrupt the overlying epithelium
• NO submucosal glands
DUODENUM AND JEJUNUM  Cross section

Human, 40% formalin, H. & E., 50 x.

48
 DUODENUM  villus

NUCieus Columnar
epithelium

l l
Go g apparatus zone unstained
:

Basement
membron,.,,_ _ lymphocyte

Copll ory ----

,
l

Centro I
lacteal

49
 DUODENUM  Villi

Helly's fluid, Mallory's stain, 162 x.

50
LAMINA PROPRIA  Duodenum

51
DUODENUM

52
 DUODENUM  Intestinal gland lamina propria

Human, 10% formalin-Zenker fixation, H. & E., 612 x.

53
VILLI vasculature

Goblet
l*IS

t al
Lae e

54
JEJUNUM  Cross section

55
 JEJUNUM

Human, 10% formalin, H. & E., 612 x.

56
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LymDhol
Mucosa nodule

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Submucosal o ll'IIOOth mulC
artery and vein

57
 ILEUM  Peyer's patches

Human, 10% formalin, H. & E., 20 x.

58
2.d. Large intestine
Main Regions: caecum, colon, rectum
Caecum and colon
i. Mucosa
ii. Submucosa
iii. Muscularis externa
iv. serosa
Anatomy of the large intestine

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

2.d. Large intestine
General Histology of the Colon
• Mucosa
– No Villi in any part of the large intestine.
– Columnar apitheium , many MORE Goblet cells
– Deeper intestinal crypts than in the small intestine.
– Abundance Lymph nodules
– Muscularis mucosa discontinue
• Submucosa: loose connective tissue( as in small intestine)
• Muscularis externa.
– Tendinae colli. 3 thick bands of Longitudinal Muscle
– Circular: sphincter anii (inner part), musculus levator anii (outer part)
• Serosa:
– conective tissue with mesothelium
– Cluster adipose tissue -- APPENDICES EPIPLOICAE
 ... . . • •
•
.
c

. • •

. ' . . ~ . ... •
.
l cel s
Goblet..,,,::6:

. ntestina
gland
. I l

i
Aggn,gate lymphoid Longitud nal)
( nodule layer
tHnia coli) Muscularis
Circular layer extema

62
 APPENDIX

Human, 10% formalin, H. & E., 50 x.

63
 VERMIFORM APPENDIX

Human, 10% formalin, H. & E., 107 x.

64
2.d. Large intestine
General Histology of the Colon
• Mucosa
– No Villi in any part of the large intestine.
– Many MORE Goblet cells
– Deeper intestinal crypts than in the small intestine.
– Abunden Lymph nodules
• Submucosa as in small intestine
• Muscularis externa.
– Tenia coli. 3 thick bands of Longitudinal Muscle
• Serosa as in small intestine
 COLON

Human, 10% formalin, H. & E., 162 x.

66
2.d. Large intestine: Rectum
MUCOSA
• Columnar epithelium
• Goblet cells especially in the crypt of lieberkuhn
– Toward the anus short circular  Plicae transversal
– Close to the anus long folding  rectal column of Morgani

MUSCULARIS MUCOSA
– Only at the rectal column of Morgani
– 2cm from the anus the columnar become
epithelium squamous

Anal glands:
– sweat gland
– Oil gland
– Circumanal (midified from sweat gland)

67
RECTUM AND ANAL CANAL

68
 3. Accessory Digestive Organs

• Salivary glands
• Liver
• Gall blader
• pancreas
 Parotld duct

Subllngual ducts

Lingual trenulum

Opening ot
[Link] .:.....1
duct

Subllngual
salivary gland

Submandlbula r Submandlbular
duct aallvary gland
Gall -----L
Stom
bladder ach

Intestinal~~
juice

Pancr
eas
 Salivary glands
• GLANDULLA PAROTIS  close to ear (auricula)
• GLANDULLA SUBMANDIBULARIS  at the base of
the mouth
• GLANDULLA SUBLINGUALIS  under the lingua
muscularis
• GLANDULLA LINGUALIS :
* GLANDULLA BLANDIN / NUHN
* GLANDULLA SEROUSA VON EBNER
* GLANDULLA MUCOUSA POSTERIOR
• GLANDULLA PALATINA  at the Palatum durum
• GLANDULLA BUCCALI  under the chick
• GLANDULLA S  under the lips
LABIALIS 72
Mucous cell,
Serous cells
 SUBLINGUAL GLAND

Rhesus monkey, glutaraidehyde fixation, H. & E.,

A. 28 x; B. 55 x; C. 222 x.
74
 SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND
Striated ducts

Human, Zenker's fluid, H. & E., 612 x

75
 PAROTID GLAND

Human, 10% formalin, H. & E., 162 x

76
 PAROTID GLAND

Human, 10% formalin, H. & E., 162 x. 77

Pancreas
• Lies posterior to greater curvature of stomach
• Pancreatic juice secreted into pancreatic duct and
accessory duct and to small intestine
– Pancreatic duct joins common bile duct and enters
duodenum at
• hepatopancreatic ampulla
– 99% of cells are acini
Histology
• Exocrine
• Secrete pancreatic juice – mixture of fluid and digestive enzymes
– 1% of cells are pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
• Endocrine
• Secrete hormones glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and
pancreatic
polypeptide

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Relation of the pancreas to the liver,
gallbladder, and duodenum

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Liver and gallbladder
• Liver is the heaviest gland of the body
• Liver is composed of
– Hepatocytes – major functional cells of liver
• Wide variety of metabolic, secretory, and endocrine functions –
secrete
– bile (excretory product and digestive secretion)
Bile canaliculi – ducts between hepatocytes that collect bile
– • Exits livers as common hepatic duct, joins cystic duct from
gallbladder to
form common bile duct
Hepaticways
• 3 different sinusoids – highlyunits
to organize permeable blood capillaries receiving
– Hepatic
oxygenated
acinusblood from hepatic
– preferred methodartery and deoxygenated nutrient-rich
blood from
• Hepatocytes hepaticinportal
arranged vein
3 zones around short axis with no sharp
boundaries

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Histology of the Liver

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Histology of the Liver

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Gallbladder

– Contraction of smooth muscle fibers eject

contents of gall bladder into cystic duct
– Functions to store and concentrate bile produced
by the liver until it is needed in the small intestine
– Absorbs water and ions to concentrate bile up to
ten-fold

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Hepatic blood flow
• Liver receives blood
• from
Hepatic artery carrying
• oxygenated blood
Hepatic portal vein
carrying deoxygenated
blood with newly
absorbed nutrients and
possibly drugs,
microbes or toxins from
GI tract
Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Role and composition of bile

– Hepatocytes secrete 800-1000mL of bile daily

– Mostly water, bile salts, cholesterol, lecithin, bile
pigments and several ions
– Partially excretory product/ partially digestive
secretion
– Bilirubin – principal bile pigment
• Derived from heme of recycled RBCs
• Breakdown product stercobilin gives feces brown color
– Bile salts play role in emulsification
• Also aid in absorption of lipids following digestion

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Liver Functions:

• 1) maintenance of a constant glucose level in

bloodstream

• 2) detoxification of drugs & alcohol

• 3) production of bile

• 4) destruction old RBC & converts hemoglobin to

bilirubin

• 5) production the plasma protein prothrombin

• 6) regulation of cholesterol & other fats

Bile
• produced by liver
• enters small intestine via duct from gall bladder
• fat emulsifier
• contains bilirubin (breakdown hemoglobin)
• jaundice occurs when bilirubin is not removed
• neutralizes stomach acid, contains sodium
bicarbonate