DEFINITION ANTENNA
“A transducer between a guided wave propagating in a transmission line and EM wave
propagating in an unbounded medium
(usually free space)”
• ANTENNA: A metallic conductor system that is capable of radiating and capturing EM
waves
• It is used to interface transmission line to free space, free space to transmission line, or both
• Transmission lines couples energy from a transmitter to an antenna or from an antenna to a
receiver
• The antenna will then couple the energy from the transmission lines to the earth’s atmosphere
and from the earth’s atmosphere to the transmission line
• At the transmit end of a radio communication system
Antenna will convert electrical energy travelling along the transmission line into an EM waves
that are emitted into space
At the receiving end of a radio communication system
At the receiver end, antenna will convert EM waves in the space into electrical energy on a
transmission line
Waveguides is used to efficiently interconnect high frequency EM waves between an antenna
and transceiver
BASIC OPERATION OF TRANSMIT AND RECEIVED ANTENNA
• The transmitter can be modelled as a Thevenin source consisting of
voltage generator and series impedance which delivers a transmit power Pt
to the transmit antenna
• The transmit antenna radiates a spherical wave which, at large distances,
approximates a plane wave, at least over a localized area
• The receive antenna intercepts a portion of the propagating wave and
delivers a receive power Pr
ANTENNA AS A PASSIVE, RECIPROCAL
DEVICE
• An antenna is a reciprocal device which means that:
The transmitted and received characteristics and
performance are identical (i.e gain, directivity,
frequency of operation, BW, radiation resistance,
etc)
• A basic antenna is a passive device due to the fact
that it does not have an active components (diodes,
transistors, FETs, LNAs, etc).
ANTENNA AS BOTH
Tx and Rx
• In many radio communication system, the same
antenna is used for transmitting and receiving
Therefore, antenna must be constructed from heavy duty
materials.
• Because the antenna is used both as the transmitter
and the receiver,
A DUPLEXER – a special coupling device is used to prevent
the high power transmit signals from being coupled into
the relatively sensitive receiver
DUPLEXER
• A device which allows a transmitter operating on
one frequency and a receiver operating on a
different frequency to share one common antenna
with a minimum of interaction and degradation of
the different RF signals.
• A duplexer is also an add on accessory for printers,
and it allows one to print on both sides of the paper
automatically.
RADIATION SOURCES
Fall into two groups:
(i) Current fields (i.e.: Dipole, Loop Antenna)
> The time-varying currents flowing in the conducted wires give rise to the radiated
EM field
(ii) Aperture fields (i.e.: Horn Antenna)
> Electric and Magnetic fields across the horn’s aperture serve as the sources of
the radiated field
> However, the aperture fields themselves are induced by time-varying currents on
the surfaces of the horn’s wall.
Thus, ultimately all radiation is due to time-varying currents.
ANTENNA COORDINATE SYSTEM
• Describe in terms of spherical coordinate
• An antenna is placed at the center of the sphere
• Distance to any point on the surface of the sphere can be defined with respect
to the antenna by using the radius of the sphere d and
angle and .
Spherical coordinates
RADIATION PATTERN
• It is a polar diagram or graph representing field strength of power densities
at various angular position relative to antenna
• A diagram indicating the intensity of radiation from a transmitting antenna or
the response of a receiving antenna as a function of direction.
• There are 2 types of radiation patterns:
a. Absolute
Variable distance, fixed power
b. Relative
Variable power, fixed distance
NOTE:
Radiation patterns of an antenna are usually measured in the far field region
NEAR FIELD vs FAR FIELD
• Near field (induction field or Fresnel region) : Field pattern
that is close to the antenna
• Near field is defined as area within a distance 2D2/λ from the antenna, where λ =
wavelength and D = antenna diameter
• Far field (radiation field or Fraunhofer region) : Field
pattern that is at a great distance from the antenna
Distance, r > 2D2/λ
• Power that reaches the far field continues to radiate outward
and never returned to the antenna
• Radiation pattern (radiated power) is important
Antenna radiation patterns are generally given for the far
field
ISOTROPIC ANTENNA
• A point source radiator that radiate equally in all directions
• This is a standard to which real antennas are compared
• Lossless
• Unity power gain (Gp =1), Directivity, D = 1
• Consider an isotropic source at point O fed with
Power, P watts
• The power then flows outward from O at any time
t, through a spherical surface of radius r
Power density, Pd at point Q
P
Pd W / m2 INVERSE SQUARE
4r 2 LAW
• Pd is related to the electric and magnetic field
E2
Pd E H
120 THEORETICAL ONLY, CANNOT
BE BUILT
30 P V
E
r m
Typical Antenna Directivity
Gd,max =
Antenna Type
Directivity,D
Isotropic 1
Short/Hertzian Dipole 1.5
Half-Wave Dipole 1.64
Quarter-Wave Monopole over an Ideal
Ground Plane 3.28
ANTENNA POLARIZATION
• Refers simply to the orientation of the electric field radiated from it
• It is the direction in space of the electric vector of the EM waves radiated
from an antenna & is parallel to the antenna itself
Antenna polarizations:
(a) linear
(b) elliptical polarization
(c) circular polarization
• An antenna may be linearly (either horizontally or vertically polarized,
assuming the antenna elements lie in a horizontal or vertical plane),
elliptically or circularly polarized.
• VERTICALLY POLARIZED (Linear polarization)
If an antenna radiates a vertically polarized EM wave
• HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED (Linear polarization)
If an antenna radiates a horizontally polarized EM wave
• ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED (Elliptical polarization)
If the radiated electric field rotates in an elliptical pattern
• CIRCULARLY POLARIZED (Circular polarization)
If the radiated electric field rotates in a circular pattern
RESONANT ANTENNA
• Corresponds to the resonant transmission line, which is an
open circuit transmission line with resonant length
• Resonant length is a multiple of λ/4
• The radiation pattern depends mainly on its length
• The number of lobes on the radiation pattern depends on its
length
4
n
where: length of the antenna in λ
• It is also a narrowband antenna with low directive gain (from
2.15dB to 8.51dB, depending on the length of the antenna)
• Example in handy is Broadside antenna
RESONANT ANTENNA:
BROADSIDE ARRAY ANTENNA
Broadside antenna: (a) broadside array antenna (b) radiation pattern
BROADSIDE ARRAY ANTENNA
• Made by placing several resonant dipoles of :
Equal size (both length and diameter)
In parallel with each other and in a straight line
• Radiates at right angle to the plane of the array and radiates very
little in the direction of the plane (from the name: BROADSIDE)
• Comprised of four driven elements with the length of λ/2 separated
by one-half wavelength (or λ/2)
• Driven Directly connected to the transmission line and receive
power from the source
• Directivity can be increased by:
Increasing the length of the array
• HOW ?
Adding more elements
NON RESONANT ANTENNA
Must have matched termination
• It is like a non-resonant transmission line (loaded)
without the formation of standing waves which can
be achieved using correct termination so that only
forward traveling wave will exist
• It is a broadband antenna, suitable for the
transmission and reception of the high frequency
(HF) signals from 3MHz to 30MHz
• Example: Rhombic antenna
RHOMBIC ANTENNA
• Made up of four nonresonant elements each several
wavelengths long
• Mounted horizontally and placed one-half wavelength or
more above the ground
• Exact height depends on the precise radiation pattern desired
• Each set of elements acts as a transmission line terminated in
its characteristic impedance. Thus, waves radiated in the
forward direction
• The terminating resistor absorbs one-third of the antenna
input power
• Has a maximum efficiency of 67%
• Gains of over 40 (16dB) can be achieved
BASIC ANTENNA
1. Hertzian dipole (Elementary Doublet)
• It is an electrically short dipole, elementary dipole.
• Generally, any dipole that is less than and equals to λ/10 is
considered electrically short.
• It has uniform current throughout its length.
• In reality, cannot be achieved.
2. Half-wave dipole
• Most widely used antennas at frequency > 2 MHz.
• < 2 MHz; the physical length is not practical.
• It is a resonant antenna multiple of quarter-wavelengths
long and open circuited at the far end.
3. Grounded antenna
• It is a monopole antenna λ/4 long.
• Mounted vertically with the lower end either connected directly
to ground or grounded through antenna coupling network.
• Also called Marconi antenna.
• The ground should be a good conductor to reduce power loss.
ANTENNA ARRAYS – CONT.
DESCRIPTION
• Antenna array is formed when two or more antenna elements are combined to
form a single antenna. (Driven + Parasitic elements)
• Elements are place in such a way that their radiation field interact with
each other and produce a resulting radiation pattern that is the vector
sum of the individual ones
• Reinforcement or cancellation at any direction is determined by the individual
characteristics of each elements, spacing between element as measure in
wavelength and the phase difference between the various feed point
• There are 2 types of antenna elements in antenna array
1. Driven element
Directly connected to the transmission line and receive power or are
driven by the source
Can be a half or quarter-wave dipole
2. Parasitic element – not connected to the transmission line
Receive energy through mutual induction with driven element or
another parasitic element
PARASITIC ELEMENTS
Reflector
• Parasitic element that is longer than the driven element from which
it receives energy
• Placed at the back of the driven element
• It effectively reduces signal strength in its direction and increases it
in the opposite direction
• It acts as a concave mirror in optical system
Director
• A parasitic element that is shorter than the driven element from
which it receives energy
• It is placed in front of the driven element
• Tends to increase radiation in its own direction
• Act as a convergent convex lense.
1. Broadside array
• One of the simplest types of antenna arrays
• Made by placing several resonant dipoles of equal size (both length and
diameter) in parallel with each other and in straight line (colinear)
• All elements are fed in phase from the same source
• Element 1 and 2 produces are radiated 180o out of phase and Criss
crossing the transmission line produces an additional 180o phase shift
Thus, the currents in all the elements are in phase and additive in a
plane of the array
• Directivity can be increased even further by increasing the length of the
array by adding more elements
2. End-fire array
• Its physical arrangement is the same as that of the broadside array
• But the magnitude of the current in each element is still as in every other
element as there is now a phase difference between these currents
• The radiation pattern is in the plane of the array and unidirectional
• No radiation at right angles to the plane of the array because of
cancellation
3. Rhombic antenna (refer previous note)
Broadside antenna End-fire antenna
(a) Broadside array (a) End-fire array
(b) Radiation pattern (b) Radiation pattern
YAGI-UDA ANTENNA
• Use a folded dipole (commonly – not necessarily) as the driven element
• It is linear array consisting of a dipole and 2 or more parasitic elements:
One Reflector and One or More Directors
• As used in practice, it has one reflector and several directors, either of equal length
or decreasing slightly away from the driven element
• They are arranged colinearly and close together
• It is unidirectional
• It is employed at higher frequency, particularly as a VHF television receiving
antenna
• The back lobe of the pattern may be reduced front-to-back ratio of the antenna is
improved by bringing the radiators closer
• The reflector is a straight aluminium rod, 5% longer than the driven element
(0.55λ). Drive element: DIPOLE or Folded Dipole
• The director is 5% shorter than the driven element (0.45λ)
• Each successive director is 5% shorter
• The spacing between elements is generally between 0.1λ to 0.2λ
• Typical directive gain is between 7 and 9dB
• BW extends from 54MHz to 216 MHz (i.e: VHF TV Bands)
Yagi-Uda antenna
(a) Three-element Yagi
(b) Radiation pattern
LOOP ANTENNA
• The most fundamental loop antenna is a single-turn coil of wire that is significantly
shorter than 1λ and carries RF current
• If the radius, r is small compared with a λ
The current is in phase throughout the loop
• Generally, the loop can be considered as many elemental (Hertzian) dipoles
connected together. Dipoles is straight so it is actually a polygon rather than
circular. Circular is assumed if the dipoles is sufficiently short
• Generally, loops are circular but any shape will do
• Radiation pattern for a loop antenna is the same as a short horizontal dipole
• Polarization is linear (same as elementary dipole):
Vertical – Vertically polarizes, and
Horizontal – Horizontally polarized
• Small vertically polarized loop usually used as direction finder (DF)
• Direction of a received signal can be found by orientating the loop until a zero
value is found This is the direction of the received signal
• Advantage:
Smaller (more easily adapted to mobile communication application)
Loop Antenna
