Introduction to DC-DC

Conversion
a buck converter or a step-down converter
the output voltage is less than the input.
 Introduction
• DC to DC Converters convert DC power to another DC power level or
convert voltage/current to another voltage/current
• Batteries are often shown on a schematic diagram as the source of DC
voltage but usually the actual DC voltage source is a power supply.
• DC to DC converters are important portable electronic devices used
whenever we want to change DC electrical power efficiently from one
voltage level to another.
• A power converter generates output voltage and current for the load from
a given input power source.
Types of Converter

1) Basic Switching Converter

2) Buck Converter
3) Boost Converter
4) Buck-boost Converter
5) C´ UK Converter
6) Interleaved Converter
7) Switched-Capacitor Converter
 Typical Application of DC-DC converter

• Car battery 12V must be stepped down to 3-5V DC voltage to run DVD/CD player
• Laptop computers or cellular phone battery voltage must be stepped down to
run several sub-circuts, each with its own voltage level requirement different
from that supplied by the battery.
• Single cell 1.5 V DC must be stepped up to 5V operate an electronic circuitry.
• A 6V or 9V DC must be stepped up to 500V DC or more, to provide an insulation
testing voltage.
• A 12V DC must be stepped up to +/-40V or so, to run a car hifi amplifier circuitry.
• A 12V DC must be stepped up to 650V DC or so, as part of a DC-AC sinewave
inverter.
LINEAR VOLTAGE REGULATORS
One method of converting a dc voltage to a lower dc voltage is a simple circuit as shown in Fig. 6-1.

The linear regulator is very

popular in many applications for
its low cost, low noise and simple
to use.

 the load current is controlled by the transistor

 By adjusting the transistor base current, the output voltage may be controlled over a range of 0 to
roughly Vs.
 The base current can be adjusted to compensate for variations in the supply voltage or the load, thus
regulating the output.
 This type of circuit is called a linear dc-dc converter or a linear regulator because the transistor
operates in the linear region, rather than in the saturation or cutoff regions.
power absorbed by the transistor P=

The output voltage

For example,
1. if the output voltage is one-quarter of the input voltage, the load resistor absorbs one-quarter of
the source power, which is an efficiency of 25 percent.
2. The transistor absorbs the other 75 percent of the power supplied by the source.
3. Lower output voltages result in even lower efficiencies.
4. Therefore, the linear voltage regulator is suitable only for low-power applications.
1) A BASIC SWITCHING CONVERTER
transistor operates as an electronic switch

This circuit is also known as a dc chopper.

when the switch is open, the output is zero
when the switch is closed, the
output is the same as the input
The average or dc component of the output voltage is

The dc component of the output voltage is controlled by adjusting the duty ratio D,

f = the switching frequency

The dc component of the output voltage will be less than or equal to the input voltage for this circuit.
2) BUCK (STEP-DOWN) CONVERTER Vx is Vs when the switch is closed
If the low-pass filter is ideal, the output voltage is the average of the input
voltage to the filter.
The input to the filter, Vx
Filter Vx

Vx is zero when the switch is opened

This circuit is called a buck converter
or a step-down converter because the output
voltage is less than the input.
Buck converters and dc-dc converters in general, have the following properties when
operating in the steady state:
The inductor current is periodic The power supplied by the source is the same
as the power delivered to the load.

The average inductor voltage is zero

The average capacitor current is zero

 Capacitors and Inductors !
dv ( t )
In capacitors: i(t )  C The voltage cannot change instantaneously
dt

Capacitors tend to keep the voltage constant (voltage “inertia”). An ideal

capacitor with infinite capacitance acts as a constant voltage source.

di ( t )
In inductors: v(t )  L The current cannot change instantaneously
dt

Inductors tend to keep the current constant (current “inertia”). An ideal

inductor with infinite inductance acts as a constant current source.

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 Buck converter
!
• Assume large C so that Vout has
+v L – very low ripple
iL I out
i in
+ • Since Vout has very low ripple,
L then assume Iout has very low
V in C V out
iC ripple
–

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The input/output equation for DC-DC converters usually comes
by examining inductor voltages

+ (Vin – Vout) –
i in iL I out

L +
Switch closed for DT V in V out
C (iL – Iout)
seconds –

Reverse biased, thus the diode is open

diL
vL  Vin  Vout , diL diL V  Vout
vL  L , Vin  Vout  L ,  in
dt dt dt L
for DT seconds

Note – if the switch stays closed, then Vout = Vin 14

Since the derivative of the current is a positive constant, the current increases linearly

15
Switch open for (1 − D)T seconds

– Vout +
iL I out

L +
V in C V out
(iL – Iout)
–

iL continues to flow, thus the diode is closed. This is the assumption

of “continuous conduction” in the inductor which is the normal
operating condition.

diL
vL  Vout , diL diL  Vout
vL  L ,  Vout  L , 
dt dt dt L
for (1−D)T seconds

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The derivative of current in the inductor is a negative constant, and the current
decreases linearly

17
 Examine the inductor current

diL V  Vout
Switch closed, v L  Vin  Vout ,  in
dt L

diL  Vout
Switch open, v L  Vout , 
dt L

From geometry, Iavg = Iout is halfway between Imax and

iL  Vout
L
A / sec Imin
Imax
Iavg = Iout
Vin  Vout ΔI Periodic – finishes a
Imin A / sec period where it started
L

DT (1 − D)T

T
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Steady-state operation requires that the inductor current at the end of the switching cycle
be the same as that at the beginning, meaning that the net change in inductor current over
one period is zero.

Solving for Vo,

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In the steady-state, average inductor voltage is zero and average inductor current must be
the same as the average current in the load resistor
In the steady-state, average capacitor current is zero

change in inductor current

ΔI

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Equation (6-12) can be used to determine the combination of L and f that will
result in continuous current.

iL  Vout
A / sec
L
Imax
Iavg = Iout
Vin  Vout ΔI
Imin A / sec
L

DT (1 − D)T
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 Output Voltage Ripple
The variation in output voltage, or ripple, is computed from the voltage-current relationship
of the capacitor. The current in the capacitor is

While the capacitor current is positive, the capacitor is charging. From the definition of capacitance,

The change in charge Q is the area of

the triangle above the time axis

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 Peak-to-peak ripple voltage

Fraction of the output voltage

Capacitance in terms of specified voltage ripple

If the ripple is not large, the assumption of a

constant output voltage is reasonable and the
preceding analysis is essentially valid. 23
Capacitor Resistance—The Effect on Ripple Voltage

 A real capacitor can be modeled as a capacitance with an equivalent series resistance (ESR)
and an equivalent series inductance (ESL).
 The ESR may have a significant effect on the output voltage ripple, often producing a ripple
voltage greater than that of the ideal capacitance.
 The voltage variation across the capacitor resistance is

To estimate a worst-case condition

peaks of the capacitor peak-to-peak ripple voltage due
peak-to-peak ripple voltage at the output 24
ripple due to the capacitance to the ESR
Synchronous Rectification for the Buck Converter

What is Synchronous Rectification?

• Replacing secondary side rectifiers (D1, D2) with MOSFETs (Q2, Q3)
Benefits of SR
• Higher Efficiency
• Lower output voltage
• Higher current applications benefit most
SR Nomenclature
• S1→control SR
• S2→freewheeling SR

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 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Most buck converters are designed for continuous-current operation
What is component?
frequency
.
 switching frequency
 inductance increases
 the output voltage ripple ( capacitor)

minimum minimum decrease

Therefore, high switching frequencies size of size of
are desirable to reduce the size of both Inductor Capacitor
the inductor and the capacitor.
produce limit

continuous current output ripple

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 Typical switching frequencies
to avoid
Audio noise above 20 kHz

extend well into the 100s of KHz and into the MHz range.

Some designers 500 kHz to be the best compromise

consider

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 The Buck Converter Example
Given an input voltage of Vi=12V. The required average output voltage is VO=5V at R=500Ω and the peak-to-
peak output ripple voltage is 20 mV. The switching frequency is 25 kHz. If the peak-to-peak ripple current of
inductor is limited to 0.8 A, determine (a) the duty cycle D, (b) the filter inductance L, (c) the filter capacitor C,
and (d) the critical values of L and C.
Solution:
a) D = 5/12 = 0.42
b) L = (1 – D)VO / (ΔiL x f) = (1 – 0.42)5 /(0.8 x 25,000) = 145μH
c) C = ΔIL / (8f ΔVC) = 0.8 / (8 x 25000 x 0.02) = 200μF
d) Lcrit = (1 – D)R / 2f = (1 – 0.42) x 500 / (2 x 25000) = 5.83 mH
Ccrit = (1 – D) / (16 x L x f2) = (1 – 0.42) / (16 x 145 x 10-6 x 250002) = 0.4μF
 The Boost Converter Examples:
Given a buck converter design with fsw = 200 kHz (TS = 5 μsec), VD = 0.7V, I0(min) = 0.5A , I0(nom)= 10A and D = 50% duty
cycle. Find:
a) VO if Vi = 10 V in continuous mode
b) Inductor L
c) VO if Vi = 10 V in discontinuous mode

Solution:
a) Vo = Vi / (1 –D) = 10 / (1 – 0.5) = 20V
b) Inductor L

= (20 – 10 + 0.7) (1 – 0.5) / (0.5 x 200 k) = 54 µH

c)
= 1 + {(10 x 0.52 x5µs)/ (2 x 54 µH x 10)} = 1 + 0.012

 Vo = 10.12V