Agilent Technologies Classroom Series

Practical
Temperature
Measurements

001
 Agenda

Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical
Pyrometer
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A1
 What is Temperature?

A scalar quantity that determines the

direction of heat flow between two bodies
A statistical measurement
A difficult measurement
A mostly empirical measurement

002
 How is heat transferred?

Conduction
 Metal coffee cup

Convection

Radiation

003
The Dewar

Glass is a poor conductor

Gap reduces conduction
Metallization reflects radiation
Vacuum reduces convection

004
 Thermal Mass

Don't let the measuring

Sensor device change the
temperature of what you're
measuring.
Response time =
 f{Thermal mass}
 f{Measuring device}

Sensor

005
 Temperature errors
What is YOUR normal temperature?
Thermometer accuracy, resolution
Contact time
Thermal mass of thermometer, tongue
Human error in reading

97.6 98.6 99.6

36.5 37 37.5
006
 History of temperature sensors

1600 1700
ad ad
12 96
Fahrenheit
1  Instrument
0 Maker
 12*8=96
points
Galileo: First
 Early  Hg:
temp. sensor Repeatable
 pressure- thermometers
 One
sensitive  Not
standard
 not repeatable repeatable
scale
 No good way
to calibrate 007
 The 1700's: Standardization

1700 ad 1800 ad
0 100
Thomson effect
 Absolute zero

100 0
Celsius:
Common,
"Centigrade"
repeatable
calibration scale
reference points
008
 1821: It was a very good year

1800 ad 1900 ad

The Seebeck
effect

Davy: The RTD

Pt 100
d @ O deg.C

009
 The 1900's: Electronic sensors

1900 ad 2000 ad

1 uA/K
Thermistor

IC sensor

IPTS 1968 IPTS 1990

"Degree Kelvin">> "kelvins"
"Centigrade">> " Celsius"

010
 Temperature scales
Absolute Freezing Boiling point
zero point H2O H O2
Celsius 0 100
-273.15

0 Kelvin 273.15 373.15

Fahrenheit 32 212
-459.67
0 Rankine 427.67 671.67

"Standard" is "better":
 Reliable reference
points
 Easy to understand
011
 IPTS '90: More calibration points
– 273.16: TP – 1357.77: FP
– H2O
234.3156: TP – Cu
1337.33: FP
Hg – Au
1234.93: FP
Ag
Large gap – 933.473: FP
Al
– 692.677: FP
– 83.8058: TP Zn
Ar – 505.078: FP
– 54.3584: TP Sn
– O2
24.5561: TP – 429.7485: FP
– 20.3:
Ne BP In
– 17 Liq/vapor
H2 – 302.9146: MP
– 13.81
H2 TP
– 3 to 5: Vapor Ga
H2
He 012
 Agenda

Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical
Pyrometer
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A2
 Bimetal thermometer

Two dissimilar Forces due to

thermal Result
metals, tightly
bonded expansion

100 200 300 Bimetallic thermometer

0  Poor accuracy
400  Hysteresis
Thermal expansion causes big
problems in other designs:
 IC bonds
 Mechanical interference

013
 Liquid thermometer; Paints
100

0 Thermally-sensitive paints
 Irreversible change
 Low resolution
 Useful in hard-to-measure area
Liquid-filled thermometer
 Accurate over a small range
 Accuracy & resolution= f(length)
 Range limited by liquid
 Fragile
 Large thermal mass
 Slow
014
 Agenda

Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical
Pyrometer
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A3
 Optical Pyrometer

Infrared Radiation-sensitive
Photodiode or photoresistor
Accuracy= f{emissivity}
Useful @ very high temperatures
Non-contacting
Very expensive
Not very accurate

015
 Agenda

Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical
Pyrometer
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A4
Resistance Temperature Detector

Most accurate & stable

Good to 800 degrees Celsius
Resistance= f{Absolute T}
Self-heating a problem
Low resistance
Nonlinear

016
 RTD Equation

R= 100 Ohms @ O C

Callendar-Van Deusen Equation:

For T>OC: R=Ro(1+aT) - Ro(ad(.01T)(.01T-1))

 Ro=100 @ O C
 a= 0.00385 / - C for Pt
R  d= 1.49

300
200 Nonlinearity
100

T
0 200 400 600 800
017
 Measuring an RTD: 2-wire method
Rx Rlead
100d +
Rlead V I ref= 5 mA
Pt -

R= Iref*(Rx + 2* Rlead)

 Error= 2d /.385= more than 5 degrees C for 1 ohm
Rlead!
Self-heating:
 For 0.5 V signal, I= 5mA; P=.5*.005=2.5 mwatts
 @ 1 mW/deg C, Error = 2.5 deg C!

Moral: Minimize Iref; Use 4-wire method

 If you must use 2-wire, NULL out the lead resistance

018
 The 4-Wire technique
Rx
100d +
Rlead=1d V I ref= 5 mA
-

 R= Iref * Rx
 Error not a function of R in source or sense
leads
 No error due to changes in lead R

 Twice as much wire

 Twice as many scanner channels
 Usually slower than 2-wire

019
 Offset compensation
Voffset
100d +
V I ref (switched)
-

Eliminates thermal voltages

 Measure V without I applied
 Measure V With I applied

V
R=
I

020
 Bridge method
100 d
d
1000

V
100d
d
1000 High resolution (DMM
stays on most sensitive
range)
Nonlinear output
Bridge resistors too
close to heat source

021
 3-Wire bridge
1000d 100d
Rlead 1
V
Sense wire
3-Wire
1000d Rlead 2 PRTD
100d
Keeps bridge away from heat source
Break DMM lead (dashed line); connect to
RTD through 3rd "sense" wire
If Rlead 1= Rlead 2, sense wire makes
error small
Series resistance of sense wire causes no
error
022
 Agenda

Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical
Pyrometer
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A5
 Electrical sensors: Thermistor
Rlead=1
d +
5k d Rlead=1d
V I= 0.1 mA
-

Hi-Z; Sensitive: 5 k @ 25C; R = 4%/deg C

d
Limited range
2-Wire method: R= I * (Rthmr + 2*Rlead)
 d /400= 0.005 degrees C
Lead R Error= 2
Low thermal mass: High self-heating
Very nonlinear

023
 I.C. Sensor

I= 1 uA/K
+ High output
5V - 100 d Very linear
Accurate @
V = 1mV/K
room ambient
960d
Limited range
Cheap

024
 Summary: Absolute T devices

RTD I.C.
Thermistor

Most accurate High output High output

Most stable Fast Most linear
Fairly linear 2-wire meas. Inexpensive
Expensive Very nonlinear Limited variety
Slow Limited range Limited range
Needs I source Needs I source Needs V source
Self-heating Self-heating Self-heating
4-wire meas. Fragile
025
 Agenda
Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical
Pyrometer
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A6
 Thermocouples
The Gradient Theory
Ta Tx
The WIRE is the
V sensor, not the
junction
Tx
The Seebeck
coefficient (e) is a
V= e(T) dT
function of
Ta temperature

026
 Making a thermocouple
Ta

B Tx
V
Two wires make a
A thermocouple
Ta

Tx Ta Voltage output is
nonzero if metals are
V= e dT + e dT not the same
A B
Ta Tx
027
 Gradient theory also says...
Ta

A Tx
V
If wires are the
A same type, or if there
Ta is one wire, and
Tx Ta both ends are at the
same temperature,
V= e dT + e dT = 0 output= Zero.
A A
Ta Tx
028
 Now try to measure it:
a
Fe
Tx Theoretically,
b Vab= f{Tx-Tab}
Con
But, try to measure it with a DMM:
Cu Fe Cu Fe
Tx
V

Cu Con
Tx
= V

Cu Con
Result: 3 unequal junctions, all at unknown
temperatures
029
 Solution: Reference Thermocouple
Problems: a) 3 different thermocouples,
b) 3 unknown temperatures
Solutions: a) Add an opposing thermocouple
b) Use a known reference temp. Isothermal
block
Cu Fe Cu Fe
Tx Add Tx
Con
V V Con
Tref
Tref = 0 oC
Cu Fe Cu Fe

030
 The Classical Method

Cu Fe
If both Cu junctions are at
Tx same T, the two "batteries"
V Con cancel
Tref Tref is an ice bath
o
=0C (sometimes an electronic ice
Cu Fe bath)
All T/C tables are
referenced to an ice bath
V= f{Tx-Tref}

Question: How can we eliminate the ice bath?

031
 Eliminating the ice bath

Don't force Tref to icepoint, just

Cu Fe measure it
Compensate for Tref
Tx
mathematically:
V Con V=f{ Tx - Tref }
Tref Tice Tice

Cu Fe If we know Tref , we can

Tice
compute Tx.

032
 Eliminating the second T/C

Cu Fe
Extend the isothermal block
Tx If isothermal, V1-V2=0
V Con 2
Cu Fe
Tref Tx
Cu Fe V Tref Con
1 2

Cu
1
033
 The Algorithm for one T/C
Cu Fe
Tx Measure Tref: RTD,
o
IC or thermistor
Tref ==> Vref @ O C for Type J(Fe-
V Tref Con C)
Know V, Know Vref: Compute Vx
Solve for Tx using Vx
Cu

Compute Vx
Vx=V+Vref V
Vref

0 o Tref Tx
034
 Linearization
V

Small sectors

0 o Tref Tx T
2 3 V +.... a9 V
Polynomial: T=a +a
0 1 V +a
2 V +a
3 9
Nested (faster): T=a
0 +V(a
1 +V(a
2 +V(a
3
+.......))))))))) 2
0
Small sectors (faster): T=T +bV+cV
Lookup table: Fastest, most memory

035
 Common Thermocouples
mV E
60
K Platinum T/Cs
J N
40 Base Metal T/Cs

20 T RS
deg C
0 500 1000 2000

All have Seebeck coefficients in MICROvolts/deg.C

036
 Common Thermocouples
Seebeck
Type Metals Coeff: uV/C

J Fe-Con 50 Microvolt output is a

K Ni-Cr 40 tough measurement
T Cu-Con 38 Type "N" is fairly new..
S Pt/Rh-Pt 10 more rugged and
E Ni/Cr-Con 59 higher temp. than type
N Ni/Cr/Si-Ni/Si 39 K, but still cheap

037
 Extension Wires Possible problem
here

Large extension wires

Small diameter
measurement
wires
Extension wires are cheaper, more rugged, but not
exactly the same characteristic curve as the T/C.
Keep extension/TC junction near room temperature
Where is most of the signal generated in this circuit?

038
 Noise: DMM Glossary
Normal Mode
ac NOISE
HI
DMM
Input Normal Mode
Resistance LO dc SIGNAL

Normal Mode: In series with input

Common Mode: Both HI and LO
HI
DMM terminals driven equally
Input
Resistance LO
Common Mode
ac NOISE

039
 Generating noise
Electrostatic Magnetic
Noise Noise

HI
DMM
Normal Mode
Input
Resistance LO dc SIGNAL

Large surface area, high Rlead: Max. static

coupling
HILarge loop area: Max. magnetic coupling
DMM Large R lead, small R leak:
Input R lead Max.
Resistance LO
R leak common mode noise
Common Mode
ac source
Common Mode Current

040
 Eliminating noise
Electrostati Magneti
c c
Noise Noise
HI
DM
M
Inpu Normal Mode
tR L dc SIGNAL
O
Filter, shielding, small loop area
(Caution: filter slows down the
measurement)
HI
DM Make R leak close to
M
Input
R L - +
R O
Common
leak
Mode
Common Mode ac source
Current

041
 Magnetic Noise
Magnetic coupling
DMM
Input Induced I
Resistance

Minimize area
Twist leads
Move away from strong fields

042
 Reducing Magnetic Noise
Equal and opposite induced currents

DMM
Input
Resistance

Even with twisted pair:

 Minimize area
 Move away from strong fields

043
 AC Noise
Electrostatic noise source

Stray capacitances
DMM
Input
Resistance

Inoise
Stray resistances

Stray capacitance causes I noise

DMM resistance to ground is important

044
 Reducing Electrostatic
AC Noise source
Coupling

HI
DMM
Input
Resistance
LO

Rleak
Shield shunts stray current
For noise coupled to the tip,
Rleak is still important

045
 A scanning system for T/Cs

One thermistor,
multiple T/C channels
Noise reduction
CPU linearizes T/C
DMM must be
very high quality
OHMs
Conv.
Isolators
HI I/O
uP (HP-IB,
uP RS-232) To
LO Integrating ROM
Lookup Computer
A/D
Floating Circuitry Grounded Circuitry
046
 Errors in the system Ref. Block Thermal gradient

T/C Calibration
Thermal emf & Wire errors

Ref. Thermistor cal, linearity

Reference
Thermistor Linearization Extension wire
Ohms algorithm junction error
OHMs measurement
Conv.
Isolators
HI I/O
uP (HP-IB,
uP RS-232)
LO Integrating ROM
A/D Lookup
Floating Circuitry Grounded Circuitry
047
DMM offset, linearity, thermal emf, noise
 Physical errors

Shorts, shunt impedance Sensor accuracy

Galvanic action Thermal contact
Decalibration Thermal shunting

048
 Physical Errors

Water droplets Hot spot causes shunt Z, mete

cause galvanic shows the WRONG temperatur
action; huge offsets

Exceeding the T/C's range can cause permanent

offset
Real T/C's have absolute accuracy of 1 deg C @
25C: Calibrate often and take care 049
 Physical error: Thermal contact

Surface probe
Make sure thermal mass is much smaller
than that of object being measured

050
 Physical errors: Decalibration

350 C
300 C 975 C
200 C 1000 C
100 C

This section Don't exceed Tmax of T/C

produces the Temp. cycling causes work-hardening,
ENTIRE signal decalibration
Replace the GRADIENT section
051
 Agenda

Background, history
Mechanical sensors
Electrical sensors
 Optical
Pyrometer
 RTD
 Thermistor, IC
 Thermocouple
Summary & Examples

A7
 The basic 4 temperature sensors

RTD Thermistor I.C.

Thermocouple
Most accurate High output High output Wide variety
Most stable Fast Most linear Cheap
Fairly linear 2-wire meas. Cheap Wide T. range
No self-heating
Expensive Very nonlinear Limited variety
Slow Limited range Limited range Hard to measure
Needs I source Needs I source
Needs V Relative T. only
Self-heating Self-heating source Nonlinear
4-wire meas. Fragile
Self-heating Special
connectors

Absolute temperature sensors

052
 Summary

Innovation by itself is not enough...

you must develop standards
Temperature is a very difficult,
mostly empirical measurement
Careful attention to detail is required

053
 Examples
Measurement Sensor

Photochemical process RTD (most accurate)

control:
Thermistor
Flower petal: (lowest thermal mass)
Optical pyrometer
Molten glass: (hi temp, no contact)
RTD (if <800C); or T/C
Induction furnace: (Beware magnetic I
noise)
100 degree Heat aging oven: Any of the 4 sensors

054