KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION AND REASONING
Harold R. Lucero, MIT
July 15, 2018
What is knowledge?
“The fact or condition of knowing
something with familiarity gained
through experience or
association.”
(Webster’s Dictionary, 1988)
(Knowing something via seeing,
hearing, touching, feeling, and
tasting.)
KNOWLEDGE AND ITS MEANING
What is knowledge?
• Knowledge is an useful term to
judge the understanding of an
individual on a given subject.
• In intelligent systems, domain is
the main focused subject area.
So, the system specifically
focuses on acquiring the domain
knowledge.
KNOWLEDGE AND ITS MEANING
Types of Knowledge
• Declarative
The knowledge which is based on concepts, facts
and objects, is termed as 'Declarative Knowledge'.
It provides all the necessary information about the
problem in terms of simple statements, either true or
false.
KNOWLEDGE AND ITS MEANING
Types of Knowledge
• Procedural Knowledge
Procedural knowledge derives the information on
the basis of rules, strategies, agendas and procedure.
It describes how a problem can be solved.
Procedural knowledge directs the steps on how to
perform something.
KNOWLEDGE AND ITS MEANING
Types of Knowledge
• Heuristic knowledge
Heuristic knowledge is based on thumb rule.
It provides the information based on a thumb rule,
which is useful in guiding the reasoning process.
In this type, the knowledge representation is based
on the strategies to solve the problems through the
experience of past problems, compiled by an expert.
Hence, it is also known as Shallow knowledge.
KNOWLEDGE AND ITS MEANING
Types of Knowledge
• Meta-knowledge
This type gives an idea about the other types of
knowledge that are suitable for solving problem.
Meta-knowledge is helpful in enhancing the
efficiency of problem solving through proper
reasoning process.
KNOWLEDGE AND ITS MEANING
Types of Knowledge
• Structural knowledge
Structural knowledge is associated with the
information based on rules, sets, concepts and
relationships.
It provides the information necessary for
developing the knowledge structures and overall
mental model of the problem.
KNOWLEDGE AND ITS MEANING
Fundamentals of Knowledge
KNOWLEDGE AND ITS MEANING
What is KR?
Representations of knowledge
and how it can be use in making
intelligent artifacts
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
What is KR?
• Artificial intelligence is a system that is concerned with
the study of understanding, designing and
implementing the ways, associated with knowledge
representation to computers.
• In any intelligent system, representing the knowledge is
supposed to be an important technique to encode the
knowledge.
• The main objective of AI system is to design the
programs that provide information to the computer,
which can be helpful to interact with humans and solve
problems in various fields which require human
intelligence.
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Issues in KR?
The main objective of KR is to draw the conclusions from
the knowledge, but there are many issues associated
with the use of knowledge representation techniques.
1. Important attributes
2. Relationship among attributes
3. Choosing the granularity of representation
4. Representing sets of objects.
5. Finding the right structure as needed
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
KR Methods
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
Facts are the general statements
that may be either True or False.
Thus, logic can be used to
represent such simple facts.
• Propositional Logic
• First Oder Logic
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
Propositional Logic
• Propositional logic is a study of propositions.
• Each proposition has either a true or a false value but
not both at a time.
• Propositions is represented by variables.
For example: Symbols 'p' and 'q' can be used to
represent propositions.
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
Propositional Logic Operators
Operator Symbol Meaning
Negation ˜ NOT
Conjunction ^ AND
Disjunction V OR
Conditional → IF..THEN
Biconditional ↔ IF and Only IF
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
Propositional Logic Operators
Example:
P= I Cheat R=I write an exam
Q= I will get caught S= I will fail
(R^P) → (Q^S)
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
Propositional Logic Operators
Example:
P= I Cheat R=I write an exam
Q= I will get caught S= I will fail
(R^P) → (Q^S)
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
Translate into Propositional Logic
If James does not die then Mary will not get any money
and Jame’s Family will be happy
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
Translate into Propositional Logic
If James does not die then Mary will not get any money
and Jame’s Family will be happy
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
First Order Logic (FOL)
• The prepositional logic only deals with the facts, that
may be true or false.
• The first order logic assumes that the world contains
objects, relations and functions.
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
Syntax for First Order Logic (FOL)
• In prepositional logic, every expression is a sentence
that represents a fact.
• First order logic includes the sentences along with terms
which can represent the objects.
• Constant symbols, variables and function symbols are
used to build terms, while quantifiers and predicate
symbols are used to build the sentences.
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
Syntax for First Order Logic (FOL)
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
First Order Logic (FOL) Examples
Consider the sentence “Elephants are big”.
There are many ways to represent this sentence.
HasSize(Elephant, Big)
SizeOF(Elephant)= Big
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Logical Representation
First Order Logic (FOL) Examples
So lets represent that all Elephants are big.
So, we can find FOL statement as,
All things that are Elephants are big.
For all things x, for which x is a Elephant, x is big.
For all things x, if x is a Elephant, then x is big.
Finally the FOL will be written as.
∀x Elephant (x) ⇒ Big(x)
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Production Rule
• A form of procedural knowledge
that describe how to solve a
problem.
• The procedural and/or factual
knowledge is represented as rules,
called productions, in the form of
condition-action pairs.
• Are stated as follows:
•"IF this condition occurs, THEN do
this action; or this result (or
conclusion or consequence) will
occur
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Production Rule
Production Rule Example
IF flammable liquid was spilled,
THEN call the fire department.
IF the pH of the spill is less than 6,
THEN the spill material is an acid.
IF the spill material is an acid, and the spill smells like
vinegar,
THEN the spill material is acetic acid.
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Production Rule
Production Rule Example
IF flammable liquid was spilled,
THEN call the fire department.
IF the pH of the spill is less than 6,
THEN the spill material is an acid.
IF the spill material is an acid, and the spill smells like
vinegar,
THEN the spill material is acetic acid.
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Production Rule
• When the IF portion of a rule is satisfied by the facts, the
action specified by the THEN is performed.
• When this happens, the rule is said to "fire" or "execute".
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Type of Rule
Advantages of Rules
• Rules are easy to understand
•Inference and explanation are easy to derive
•Modifications and maintenance are relatively easy
•Uncertainty is easily combined with rules
•Each rule is usually independent of all others KR
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Type of Rule
Advantages of Rules
• Rules are easy to understand
•Inference and explanation are easy to derive
•Modifications and maintenance are relatively easy
•Uncertainty is easily combined with rules
•Each rule is usually independent of all others KR
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Semantic Network
• These represent knowledge in the form
of graphical networks
• Semantic networks are the most
general representation scheme
• Made up of a network of nodes and
arc. Nodes and arc- stored as
propositions
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Semantic Network
Node represent the OBJECTS,
CONCEPT, OR EVENTS
Name of the Arc
• CORRESPOND to name of
relationship
• INDICATE which concepts or
objects are linked by the
relations
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Semantic Network
Two common ARCs used are :
• IS-A used to show class RELATIONSHIP
• HAS-A used to identify the CHARACTERISTICS or
ATTRIBUTES of the object nodes
• other arcs are used for definitional purposes only
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Semantic Network Example
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Frames
• A frame is a data structure for
representing common concepts and
situations (stereotype knowledge).
• Like semantic nets, frames can be
organized in a hierarchy with general
concepts near the top and specific
concepts placed at the lower levels.
• General -top Specific -lower
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Frames
• Unlike semantic nets, each frame or node in this
hierarchy can be very rich in supplementary information.
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Frames
• Values that describe one object are grouped together
into single unit.
•Knowledge partition into slots.
•Each slot describes:
declarative knowledge (colour of a car)
procedural knowledge (activate a certain rule if
the value exceeds a certain value)
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Frames
• Frames describe an object in great detail. The detail in
form of slots that describe the various and characteristic
of the object or situation.
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Frames
Basic Frame Design
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Frames
Class Frames
• Represents general characteristics of some set of
common objects. For example Cars, Boats, and Birds.
• Defines those properties that are common to all the
objects within the class, and possibly default property
values.
static: describe an object feature whose value
doesn’t change
dynamic: is a feature whose value is likely to
change during operation of the system
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Frames
Class Frames
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Frames
Instance of Frame
• Describes a specific instance (sub-class or examples) of a
class frame.
• The instance inherits both properties and property values
from its frame class.
• The property values can be changed (recall:
static/dynamic) to tailor the object represented in the
instance.
• Many instances of the frame class can be created.
• The instances immediately inherit the frame’s properties.
•Can speed up system coding.
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Frames
Instance Frames
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Reasoning
• PC can provide reasoning capability to intelligent
systems
• Reasoning requires the ability to infer conclusions from
available facts.
• One simple form of inference is modus ponens:
Based on the available facts below:
IF A is true X (man(X)
AND A→B is true mortal(X))
THEN B is true man(socrates)
We can infer a conclusion of mortal(socrates)
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
Reasoning
father (david,john)
mother(jane,john)
father(x,john)^mother(y,john) → husband(x,y)
From the above facts and rule, we can infer some more
conclusions …
Who is X?
Who is Y?
Who is Y’s husband?
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
THANK YOU
FOR LISTENING!
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION & REASONING
