K00228 - 20180909222020 - Lecture Note - Chapter 1

CHAPTER 1
MATRICES
1.1 Matrix Notation & Terminalogy
Definition (Matrix):
An m x n matrix is an array of numbers with m rows

and n columns.
The standard mathematical convention to represent matrices:
1. A matrix can be denoted by an uppercase letter such as

A, B, C, …
2. A matrix can be denoted by a representative element/ entries
enclosed in brackets, such as
[aij], [bij], [cij], …
Note:
The entries – taken from R, C, Z etc
1.2 Types of Matrices
1. row matrix
Example:
2. column matrix
Example :
3. diagonal entries & diagonal matrix

Example : 8 0 0 
D  0 6 0 
0 0 3
1.2 Types of Matrices (cont.)
4. Square matrix
Example:  3 1
C 
 4 5 
5. Scalar matrix
6. Identity matrix
Example :
1 0 0 
E  0 1 0 
0 0 1 
Example.
3 5 1  a b c   1 3
B  F   G 
 7 5 0  d e f   1 4 
 3
H  1 7 9 J  6 
1 
Definition (Equality of Matrices)
Two matrices A = [ aij ] and B = [bij] are equal if they have the same size (m x
n) and
aij = bij for 1  i  m and 1  j  n
Examples:
Consider the four matrices
2 5 0  3 1
B  C 
 1 4 1   4 5 
- Matrices B & C are not equal because they are of different sizes.
- Matrices D & E are equal if and only if x = 5 and y = 1.
1.3 Operations with Matrices
1.3.1 Matrix Addition
Definition (Matrix Addition)

If A = [aij ] and B = [bij] are matrices of size m x n, then their sum is the
matrix given by
A + B = [aij + bij ].
Examples
Let B   2 5 0  and 6 2 . 3 
 1 4 1  K  
   1 5 2
Then,
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)
1.3.2 Scalar Multiplication
Definition (Scalar Multiplication)

If A = [aij ] is a m x n matrix and c is a scalar, then the scalar multiple of
A by c is the matrix given by
cA = [caij].
Examples
Let B   2 5 0  and c = 5 .
 1 4 1 
 
Then,
Note (Matrix Subtraction):

• – A can be used to represent the scalar product (– 1)A .
• If A and B are of the same size, A – B represent the sum of A
and (– 1)B . That is,
A – B = A + (– 1)B
Examples
6 2 3 
Let B   2 5 0 , K   c=5 .
and
 1 4 1   1 5 2 
 
Then,
1.3.3 Matrix Multiplication
Definition (Matrix Multiplication)

If A = [aij ] is a m x n matrix and B = [bij] are matrices of size n x p, then
the product AB is an m x p matrix given by
A B = [cij]
where
Examples
 3 1 6 2 3 
C K  
Find the product CK where 
and
 1 5 2
 4 5 
1.3.4 Matrix Power
If A is a square matrix and r , s are nonnegative integers, then

1. Ar As  Ar  s
2. ( Ar ) s  Ars
1.3.5 The Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of an m nmatrix A is the n matrix

m AT obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of A. That is, the i th column of AT is
the i th row of A for all i.
Example.
Find the transpose of each matrix.
2 5 0  3 1
B  C 
 1 4 1   4 5
Answer:
Note:
A square matrix A is symmetric if and only if Aij  A ji

for all i and j.
Examples
1 3 2 
 1 2
A   3 5 0  B 
 1 3 
 2 0 4 
A is symmetric but B is not symmetric.

1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations
1.4.1 Properties of Matrix Addition & scalar Multiplication

Theorem:
Let A, B and C be matrices of the same size and let c and d be scalars. Then,
a. A+B = B+A (Commutative property of addition)
b. (A+B)+C = A+(B+C) (Associative property of addition)
c. c(A+B) = cA + cB (Distributive property)
d. (c+d)A = cA + dA (Distributive property)
e. c(dA) = (cd)A (Associative property of multiplication)
f. 1A = A (Multiplicative identity)

Note:
 Generally, if A1, A2, … , Ak are matrices of the same size and c1,
c2, …, ck are scalars,
we may form the linear combination:
c1 A1  c2 A2  ...  ck Ak
where
c1, c2, …, ck are called as the coefficients of the linear
combination.

Example :
Let
Determine whether the matrix product is associative.

(Hint: Find the matrix product ABC by grouping the factors first as (AB)C and
then A(BC). Show that the same result is obtained from the both processes. )
1.4.2 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Theorem:
Let A, B and C be matrices (with sizes such that the given matrix products are
defined) and c is a scalar, the following properties are true.
a. (AB)C= A(BC) (Associative property of multiplication)
b. A(B+C) = AB + AC (Distributive property)
c. (A+B)C = AC + BC (Distributive property)
d. C(AB) = (cA)B = A(cB)
Note: Multiplication is not commutative. Therefore, it is not necessary AB =

BA.
1.4.2 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Example :
Let
Show that the matrix product is not commutative (AB  BA)
Solution:
Then, AB  BA.
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations (Cont.)
1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices

Definition (Zero Matrix)
If A is an mxn matrix and Omn is the m x n matrix consisting entirely of zeros,
then,
A + Omn = A.
The matrix Omn is called a zero matrix (additive identity for the set of all m x
n matrices).
Example :
The additive identity for the set of all 2x3 matrices.
1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices (cont.)

Theorem (Properties of Zero Matrix)
If A is an mxn matrix and c is a scalar, then, the following properties are true
1. A + Omn = A.
2. A + (-A) = Omn
3. If cA = Omn then c = 0 or A = Omn
1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices (cont.)

Theorem (Properties of Zero Matrix)
If A is an mxn matrix and c is a scalar, then, the following properties are true
1. A + Omn = A.
2. A + (-A) = Omn
3. If cA = Omn then c = 0 or A = Omn
1.4.4 Properties of Transposes

Theorem (Properties of Transposes)
If A and B are matrices (with sizes such that the given matrix operations are
defined) and c is a scalar, then the following properties are true.
1. (AT)T = A
2. (A + B)T = AT + BT
3. If (cA)T = c(AT)
4. (AB)T = BTAT
Note:
Properties (2) & (4) can be generalized to sums and products of finitely many
matrices.
Example
1 2   4 1 0 
Let A    and B .
3 4  2 3 1 
Then, A + AT and BBT are symmetric.
Note that BBT is symmetric even though B is not a square

matrix.
1.4.4 Properties of Transposes (cont.)
Theorem
a. If A is a square matrix, then A + AT is a symmetric matrix.
b. For any matrix A, AAT and ATA are symmetric matrices.
Proof (a):
(A + AT)T = AT + (AT)T (by property of transpose)
= AT + A (by property of transpose)
= A + AT. (commutativity of matrix add.)
Then,
Try to show AAT is
A + AT is symmetric .  symmetric!
Exercise (Matrix Operations):

1 2
1. Let  3 0   4 2 1   
A  , B    , C   3 4 
 1 5  0 2 3  5 6 
 
 0 3   1
D   , E  
 4 2 
 , F   
 2 1  2
Computed the indicated matrices(if possible).
i. A + 2D
ii. C–D
iii. D + BC
iv. BTCT – (CB)T
2. Let  2 4 2 
1 0 3   
A  & B   1 0 0 
 2 1 2   1 1 1
 
Find (i) c21 (ii) c13 , where C = AB.
3. Let  4 1 0 
A 
2 3 1 
(a) Find (i) c11 (ii) c21 , where C = BT B.

(b) Find (i) c11 (ii) c21 , where C = BBT.
4. Solve for x, y and z in the matrix equation

x y y z 4 x 
4   2    2  
z 1 x 1  5  x 
5. Solve the equation for X, given that :

1 2  1 0 
A  and B   
 3 4   1 1 
(i) X – 2A + 3B = 0
(ii) 2(A + 2B) = 3X
Exercise (Matrix Operations) (Answer):

20 2 2 
 3 6   
B T B   2 10 3 
1. i.  
3. (a) (i) 20 (ii) 2
 2 3 1
  5 7  (b) (i) 17 (ii) 5  
17 5 
BB T  
ii. Not possible 
 5 14 
3 3
iii.   4. x = 3 ; y = 2 ; z = 1
19 27   2 4
5 4   3 3 
0 0 0 5. ( i) X    ( ii) X  
  3 5   10 4 
iv. 0 0 0  3 
0 0 0 

2. (i) c21 = -3
(ii) c13 = -1
1.5 Elementary Row Operations
The method of elimination on a linear system is equivalent to

performing similar operations on the rows of the corresponding
augmented matrix. This method is called The Elementary Row
Operations.
Definition (Elementary Row Operations)

The following elementary row operations can be performed on a
matrix:
1. Interchange two rows.
2. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of a row to another row.
1.5 Elementary Row Operations (cont.)
Note:
ERO – a procedure to reduce any matrix to a matrix in row echelon form.
- can be performed on a system of linear equations to transform it into an
equivalent system.
Some notations for the three elementary row operations:

1. Ri  Rj means the interchange rows i and j.
2. kRi means multiply row i by k.
3. Ri + kRj means add k times row j to row i (and replace row i with the result).
Row reduction – The process of applying elementary row operations to bring a
matrix into row echelon form.
Example.
a. Interchange the first and second row.

Original Matrix New Row Equivalent Matrix Notation
R1  R2
b. Multiply the second row by ½ to produce a new first row.

(1/2) R2
c. Add -2 times the first row to the third row to produce a new third row.
R3 + 2R1
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF)
Definition. (Row Echelon Form)

A matrix is in row echelon form if it satisfies the following properties:
1. Any rows consisting entirely of zeros are at the bottom.
2. In each nonzero row, the first nonzero entry (called the leading
entry/ pivot ) is in the column to the left of any leading entries
below it.
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) (cont.)
Example.
The following matrices are in row echelon form.
2 4 1 1 0 1  1 1 2 1 
0 1 2 0 1 5 0 0 1 3 
     
0 0 0  0 0 1 0 0 0 0 
0 2 0 1 1 3
0 0 1 1 2 2 

0 0 0 0 4 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 5
Example
Reduce the following matrix to echelon form.
1 1 1 
2 3 1 
 
1 1 2
Answer:
1 1 1  R2 – 2R1
1 1 1  R3 + 2R2
1 1 1 
2 3 1  0 1 1 0 1 1
     
1 1 2 R3 – R1 0 2 3 0 0 5
Notes:
 The row echelon form of a matrix is not unique.
 The leading entry in each row is used to create the zeros
below it.
 The pivots are not necessarily the entries that are originally in
the positions eventually occupied by the leading entries.
 Once we have pivoted and introduced zeros below the leading
entry in a column, that column does not change. (The row
echelon form emerges from left to right, top to bottom).
Examples.
Use ERO to reduce the following matrices to the row echelon form.
0 2 1  3 5   3 2 1
a. 0 0 5 b.  5 2  c.  2 1 1
     
6 3 1   2 4   4 3 1
Solution (a):
0 2 1  R1  R3 6 3 1 
0 0 5 0 0 5
   
6 3 1  0 2 1 
R2  R3
6 3 1 
0 2 1 
 
0 0 5
Solution (b):
3 5  R1 – R3 1 1  R2 – 5R1 1 1 
 5 2   5 2  0 7 
     
 2 4   2 4   2 4 
1 1  1 1 
R3 – 2R1
 0 7  7R3 + 2R2
 0 7 
   
 0 2   0 0 
Solution (c):
 3 2 1 1 1 0  R2 – 2R1 1 1 0 
R1 – R2  2 1 1 0 1 1
 2 1 1
     
 4 3 1  4 3 1  4 3 1
1 1 0  1 1 0 
R3 – R2 0 1 1
R3 – 4R1 0 1 1
   
0 1 1 0 0 0 
Definition (Row Equivalent)
Matrices A and B are row equivalent if there is a sequence of

elementary row operations that converts A and B.
Example
1 1 1  1 1 1 
2 3 1  0 1 1
  and  
1 1 2 0 0 5
are row equivalent.

How can we tell whether

two matrices are row
equivalent?
Theorem
Matrices A and B are row equivalent if and only if they can be reduced to the
same row echelon form.
Exercises (ERO & REF):
1. Determine whether the matrix is in row-echelon form (REF).

If not REF, justify your answer.
1 0 0 0 2 0 1 3
  0 1 0 0   
( i) 0 1 1 2  ( ii)   ( iii) 0 1 1 4 
 1 0 2 1 
0 0 0 0  0 0 0 1
 
1 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 0  1 0 0 0
     
( iv ) 0 1 3 4  ( v ) 0 0 0 1 0  ( vi) 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0  0 0 0 2 0  0 0 0 0 
   
Exercises (ERO & REF):
2. Reduce the following matrices into REF form.

0 2 3  1 1 1 2 
 1 2 1    
( i)   ( ii) 2 3 1  ( iii)  2 2 1 3 
2 3 1   1 1 2   1 1 1 0 
  
3 5   3 2 1  2 4 7 
     
( iv ) 5 2  ( v ) 2 1 1 ( vi)  3 6 10 
2 4   4 3 1 1 2 3 
    
3. Show that the given matrices are row equivalent by showing

these two matrices can be reduced to the same REF.
 2 0 1 3 1 1
   
A   1 1 0  B  3 5 1 
 1 1 1  2 2 0 
   
Exercises (ERO & REF) (Answer):
1. (i) REF (ii) Not REF (iii) REF (iv) REF (v) Not REF (vi) REF
 1 1 2   1 1 1 2 
 1 2 1    
2. ( i )  ( ii ) 0 1 1  ( iii ) 0 0 1 1
0 1 3  0 0 1  0 0 0 0 
  
 5  2 1  7
 1   1     1 2  
 3   3 3   2 
( iv ) 0 1  ( v ) 0 1 1  ( vi ) 0 0 1 
0 0  0 0 0  0 0 0 
     
     
3. Hint: Reduce both matrices until you get the following REF
 1
 1 0 
 2 
0 1 1 
 2 
 
0 0 0 
 
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix
Definition ( Determinant of a 3x3 matrix)

 a11 a12 a13 
A  a a23. Then the determinant of A is
Let  21 a22
 a31 a32 a33 
the scalar
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
det A  A  a11  a12  a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
 a11 a12 
The determinant of the 2x2 matrix is A 
 21 22 
a a
det A  a11a22  a12 a21
The determinant of a matrix A also denoted by | A |.
Aij is the (i,j)-

detA= a11 detA11 – a12 detA12 + a13 detA13
minor of A.
3
  (1)1 j a1 j det A1 j (Submatrix of A
j 1
obtained by
deleting row I
& column j)
Example
Compute the determinant of
5 3 2 
A  1 0 2 
 2 1 3 
Solution:
0 2 1 2 1 0
det A  5 (3) 2
1 3 2 3 2 1
 5(0  (2)) 3(3  4) 2( 1  0)
5
Definition (Determinant of nxn matrix)
Let A=[aij] be an nxn matrix, where n  2. Then the determinant of A is
the scalar
det A | A | a11 det A11  a12 det A12  ...  (1)1 n a1n det A1n
n
  (1)1 j a1 j det A1 j
j 1
The pattern of the signs:

Example  2 3 0 1
5 4 2 0 
Compute the determinant of A
 1 1 0 3
 
 2 1 0 0
Solution.
4 2 0 5 2 0 5 4 2
det A  2 1 0 3  (3) 1 0 3  0  (1) 1 1 0
1 0 0 2 0 0 2 1 0
 2(4(0)  2(0  3)  0)  3(5(0)  2(0  (6))  0)  0  (1)(5(0)  4(0)  2(1  2))
 2(6)  3(12)  1(2)
 22
To define the determinant of

a matrix of order higher than
2, it is convenient to use the
notions of minors &
cofactors
Definition (Minors & Cofactors of a Matrix)
If A is a square matrix, then the minor Mij, associated with the entry aij
, is the determinant of the (n – 1)x(n – 1) matrix obtained by deleting
row i and column j from the matrix A. The cofactor of aij is
Cij = (-1)i + j Mij
The (i,j)-cofactor of A will be

Cij  (1)i  j det Aij
With this notation, definition of nxn matrix becomes

(determinant of square matrix):
n
det A   a1 j C1 j
j 1
Sign pattern of Cofactors:
Referred as cofactor expansion

along the first row
Example
Compute the determinant of the matrix
5 3 2 
A  1 0 2 
 2 1 3 
by
(a) cofactor expansion along the third row and,
(b) cofactor expansion along the second column.
Solution:
(a) det A  a31C31  a32C32  a33C33

3 2 5 2 5 3
2 (1) 3
0 2 1 2 1 0
 2(6)  8  3(3)
5
(b) det A  a12C12  a22C22  a32C32
1 2 5 2 (1) 5 2
 (3) 0
2 3 2 3 1 2
 3(1)  0  8
5
Example
Compute the determinant of the following matrix using the

cofactor expansion.
 2 3 0 1
Which row/
5 4 2 0  column suitable to
A
 1 1 0 3 choose?
 
 2 1 0 0
3rd column since

column 3 has only one
nonzero entry
Solution:
det A  a13C13  a23C23  a33C33  a34C34
 0C13  2C23  0C33  0C34

2 3 1
 2 1 1 3
2 1 0
Then,
 3 1 2 1 
det A  2  2  
 1 3 1 3 
 2(2(8)  5)
 22
Exercises (Determinant):
1. Compute the determinant of the matrix.
 3 2 1  1 4 2   1 2 1
     
( i ) A   4 5 6 ( ii ) B   3 2 0  ( iii ) C  2 2 4 
 2 3 1  1 4 3   1 3 3 
     
1 
2 1 5 
x y 1    0.4 0.4 0.3 
   1   
( iv ) D   2 2 1 ( v ) E  4  4  ( vi ) F   0.2 0.2 0.2 
4
 1 5 1    0.3 0.2 0.2 
  3 2 2 
 
 
4 3 2 5  0 2 4 5   1 2 7 9
     
1 6 1 2 3 0  3 6  ( ix ) I  3 4 5 5
( vii ) G   ( viii )H  
 3 2 4 5  2 4 5 7 3 6 1 1
     
 6 1 3 2   5 1 3 1  4 5 3 2 
w x y z 
 
21 15 24 30 
( x) J 
 10 24 32 18 
 
 40 22 32 35 
2. Find the determinants of matrices in Question 1 by using the method of

expansion by cofactors.
(a) 2rd row
(b) 3nd column
Exercises (Determinant) - Answer:
1. ( i )  75 ( ii )  58 ( iii )  2
( iv )  7 x  3 y  8 ( v )  43.5 ( vi ) 0.002
( vii )  1098 ( viii ) 585 ( ix ) 136
( x ) 65644w  62256 x  12294 y  24672z
2. Same answer as in Question 1.

Definition (Triangular Matrices)
An n x n matrix is an upper triangular if aij = 0, for all i > j, and is lower

triangular if aij = 0, for all i < j.
A square matrix is a diagonal matrix if

aij = 0, for all i  j.
Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular matrix

Examples.
Upper triangular matrices:
Lower triangular matrices are:

Theorem
The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of the entries on
its main diagonal. Specifically, if A = [aij] is nxn, then
det A  a11a22 ... ann
Example
To compute the determinant of
det A = 1(4)(1) = 4
1 1 3 
A  0 4 2 
0 0 1 
Exercises (Triangular Matrix):
Find the determinant of the triangular matrix.

5 3 0 
 
i. A  0 1 2 
0 0 8 
 
Answer:
4 0 0 0 i. -40
 
 1 1 ii. -12
ii. 0 0
B  2  iii. 7
3 5 3 0
 
 8 7 0 2 
7 8 4 3 1
 
iii. 0 1 5 3 13 
 4 
C 
0 0 2 5 4
 
0 0 0 1 1 
 
0 0 0 0 2 
Theorem (Conditions that Yield a Zero Determinant)
Let A is a square matrix and one of the following conditions is true, then
det(A) = 0.
1. An entire row (or an entire column) consists of zeros.

2. Two rows (or columns) are equal.
3. One row (or column) is a multiple of another row (or column)
Example.
The first row The first & third The 3rd column is a multiple
has all zeros row are the same of the first column
1.7.1 Properties of Determinant
Theorem (Determinant of matrix product)
If A & B are square matrices of order n, then
det(AB) = det(A). det(B)
Theorem (Determinant of a Scalar Multiple of a Matrix)

If A is an nxn matrix and k is a scalar, then the determinant of kA
is given by
det (kA) = kn det A.
1.7.2 Properties of Determinant (cont.)
Theorem (Determinant of a Transpose)
If A is a square matrix , then
det (A) = det (AT)
Example.
Given . Show that | A | = | AT |.
Answer: det(A) = det(AT) = -6

1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix
Definition (Inverse/ invertible)
If A is an n  n matrix, an inverse of A is an n  n matrix A’ with the
property that
AA '  I and A' A  I
where I = In is the n  n identity matrix. If such an A’ exists, then A is

called invertible.
Non-square matrices do
not have inverses
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Example
 2 5  3 5
If A , then A'    is an inverse of A since
 1 3   1 2 
1 0  1 0 
AA’=   and A’A=  
 0 1   0 1 
Example
Show that the following matrices are not invertible.
0 0 1 2 
a. O  b. B 
 0 0   2 4 
Suppoose B has an inverse B’  w x 


. BB’=I gives the equations;  y z 
There is no O’ such that w  2y 1
OO’=I=O’O since any product
with the zero matrix will never x  2z  0
equal to the identity matrix I. 2w  4 y  0
2x  4z  1
By our calculations, we can show that
0 = -2. Therefore, there is no solution.
Theorem (Uniqueness of Inverse Matrix)

If A is invertible matrix, then its inverse is unique.
Proof: Suppose A has two inverses A’ & A”. Then,
AA’ = I = A’A (1) and
AA” = I = A”A (2)
Thus,
A’ = A’I
= A’ (AA”) by (2)
= (A’A) A” by associativity
= IA” by (1)
= A” .
Therefore the inverse of A is unique. 
Theorem
a b 
If A   , then A is invertible if ad  bc 
, in0 which
c d 
1 1  d b 
A 
ad  bc  c a 
case .
If ad  bc  0, then A is not invertible.
Matrix A will have an inverse

if and only if it is row equivalent
to the identity matrix
Note:
Recall that the expression ad  bc is called the determinant of A, and

denoted by det A.
a b 
The formula for the inverse of  c d  (when it exists) is:
 
1
times the matrix obtained by interchanging the
det A
entries on the main diagonal and changing the signs on
the other two entries.
Examples
1 2  12 15
Find the inverses of A 
and B , if they exist.
 3 4   4  5
Solution:
Since det A = (1)(4) – (2)(3) = -2  0, then A is invertible.
Thus,
 2 1 
1 1  4 2  
A     3 1
2  3 1    
2 2
However, det B = 12(-5) – (-15)(4) = 0, so that B is not invertible.

Example.
Find the inverse of the given matrix (if it exists).
3 3  2 
4 5   2
a. A 
 4 7 b. B    c. C 2
1 2  5 2 
   6 3   2 2 2 
det B = 6/12 – 15/30 det C = 2/2 –(-2(4)) = 9

det = 8 – 7 = 1
1  2 7  =0  2
1
A   2
1  1 4   B is not invertible
1
C 1  

9 2 2 2
 2 7   2 
 
  1 4   2 2
 
9 9 

 2 2 2
 
 9 18 
NOTE:
Matrix A will have an inverse
if and only if it is row equivalent
to the identity matrix
Example
1 2 1
If A   2 2 4 , reduce A to I.
1 3 3
Tip : Also, can check
the determinant
Solution:
1 2 1 R2 – 2R1
1 2 1 R3  R2 1 2 1
2 2 4  0 2 6  0 1 2
     
1 3 3 R3 – R1 0 1 2 0 2 6
1 0 10
R1 – 2R2 1 0 3  R1 + R2 1 0 1  R1  R3 0 1 2 
0 1 2  0 1 2   
R3 + 2R2     0 0 1 
0 0 10 0 0 10
R2 + 2R3 1 0 0 
0 1 0 
  Then, this matrix is invertible .
R1 + 10R3 0 0 1 
Note: More details in next chapter – Gauss Jordan Method.
Theorem (Properties of Inverse Matrices)
If A is an invertible matrix, k is a positive integer, and c is a nonzero scalar,

then A-1, Ak , cA and AT are invertible and the following are true.
1 1
1. ( A ) A
2.
1 1
3. (cA) 1  A
c
4.
Example.
Given .
Compute A-2 in two different ways and show that the results are equal.
Solution:
1st way – find A2 and then (A2)-1 :
2nd way – find A-1 and then (A-1)2 : Note that each
method
produces the
 same result.
Theorem (The Inverse of a Product)
If A and B are invertible matrices of size n, then AB is invertible and

(AB)-1 = B-1 A-1
Proof:
We need to show B-1 A-1 is the inverse of AB.
Then, by using definition of inverse matrix;
(AB)(B-1 A-1 ) = A (B B-1) A-1 Associativity

= A (I) A-1 Since B is invertible
= (A I ) A-1 Associativity
= A A-1
=I since A is invertible
Then,
AB is invertible and can be written as indicated. 
Note:
Previous theorem can be generalized to products of finitely many
invertible matrices:
If A1 , A2 ,..., An are invertible matrices of the same size, then
A1 , A2 ,..., An is invertible and
( A1 A2 ... An ) 1  An1... A21 A11
Note:
 The inverse of a product of invertible matrices is the product of their inverses
in the reverse order.
( A  B)1  A1  B 1 is not true in general, for square matrices A, B.
Example
Suppose that B is an invertible matrix and A is any matrix with AB = BA. Show
that A and B-1 commute.
Solution:
( To show AB-1 = B-1A )
From hypothesis  AB = BA.

Multiply both sides with B-1.
Then,
(AB)B-1 = (BA) B-1
A(B B-1) = B (A B-1)
A I = B A B-1
B-1 A = B-1 B A B-1
B-1 A = A B-1 .
Therefore,
A and B-1 commute.
Example
Solve the following matrix equation for X (assuming that the
matrices involved are such that all of the indicated operations are
defined):
A1 ( BX )1  ( A1B3 )2
Solution:
Here we want to find X,
1 1 Since (AB)-1 = B-1A-1
A ( BX )  ( A B )  (( BX ) A)  ( A B )
1 1 1 3 2 3 2
 [(( BX ) A)1 ]1  [( A1B3 )2 ]1

 ( BX ) A  [( A1B3 )( A1B3 )]1
Since (AB)-1 = B-1A-1  ( BX ) A  B 3 ( A1 )1 B3 ( A1 )1
 BXA  B 3 AB 3 A
 BXA  B 3 AB 3 A
 B 1 BXAA1  B 1 B 3 AB 3 AA1
 I X I  B4 AB 3 I
 X  B 4 AB 3 
Exercises
Solve the given matrix equation for X (Simplify the answers as much as
possible).
AXB  ( BA) 2
ABXA1B1  I  A
Solutions:
AXB  ( BA)2  A1 AXBB 1  A1 ( BA)2 B 1

 I X I  A1 ( BA)2 B 1
 X  A1 ( BA)2 B 1
ABXA1B1  I  A  A1 ABXA1B1  A1 ( I  A)

 BXA1 B 1  A1  I
 BXA1B1B  ( A1  I ) B
 BXA1  A1 B  B
 B 1BXA1 A  B1 ( A1B  B) A
 X  B1 A1BA  A @ ( AB)1 BA  A
Theorem (The Fundamental of Invertible Matrices)
Let A be an n  n matrix. The following statements are equivalent:
a. A is invertible.
b. Ax =b has a unique solution for every b in Rn.
c. Ax =0 has only the trivial solution.
d. The reduced row echelon form of A is In.
Detailed discussion about this theorem in Chapter 2.
Theorem
Let A be a square matrix. If B is a square matrix such that either
AB = I or BA = I, then A is invertible and B = A-1.
Example
 3 
1 2 1  9  5
2
  
A   2 2 4  and B   5 1 
Let 3.
1 3 3  1 
 2 1
 2 
Determine whether A is invertible.

Solution:
1 0 0  1 0 0 
Since AB  0 1 0   I or BA  0 1 0   I ,
   
0 0 1  0 0 1 
Then,
A is invertible and B = A-1.
Recall that;
The (i,j)-cofactor of A will be

Cij  (1)i  j det Aij
Next formula gives a formula

for the inverse of a matrix in
terms of determinant.
Theorem (Adjoint)
Let A be an invertible nxn matrix. Then

1 1
A  adj A
det A
where adj A is the adjoint (or adjugate) of A.
The  C11 C21 ... Cn1 

matrix, C C ... C 
[C ji ]  [Cij ]  
T 12 22 n 2 
 : : : : 
 
C1n C2 n ... Cnn 
is called the adjoint of A, denoted by adj A.
Example
Use the adjoint method to compute the inverse of
1 2 1
A   2 2 4 
1 3 3
Solution:
From the computation, det A = Now, the nine cofactors will be,
2 4 2 4 2 2
C11    18 C12    10 C13   4
3 3 1 3 1 3
2 1 1 1 C23  
1 2
 1
C21   3 C22    2
3 3 1 3 1 3
2 1 1 1 C33  
1 2
 2
C31    10 C32    6 2 2
2 4 2 4
The adjoint is the transpose of the matrix cofactors – namely,

 18 10 4 
T
 18 3 10 
adjA   3 2 1   10 2 6 
 10 6 2   4 1 2 
Then,
 3 
 9  5
1  18 3 10  2
1
A  adjA   1  10 2 6  
  5 1 3
det A 2 
 
 4 1 2  1
 2 1
 2 
Theorem
Let A be a square matrix. If a sequence of elementary row
operations reduces A to I, then the same sequence of elementary
row operations transforms I into A-1.
Example
If , reduce A to I and determine A-1.

Solution:
R2 + R1 R2  R3
R1 – R2
– R2
R3 – 3R2
R2 + R3
R1 + R3
Then,
This method is called as
Gauss –Jordan Elimination
– more detail in Chapter 2
Exercises (Inverse of a Matrix):
1. Determine whether the following matrix is invertible. Show your arguments.

 3 5 2  2 3 1
 3 1    
( i ) A   ( ii ) B   2 4 1 ( iii ) C   0 5 3 
 2 2   3 0 6   4 6 2 
  
5 3 0 6 4 7 9 1  11 3 8 13 
     
4 6 4 12  6 2 7 0 0 0 11 7
( iv ) D   ( v )E  ( vi ) F   
0 2 3 4  3 6 3 3   0 0 24 9 
     
 0 1 2 2  0 7 4 1  0 0 0 15 
2. Determine the inverse of the following matrix by using:

(a) The adjoint Method
(b) The Gauss Jordan Method
1 0 3 7 2 1 1 2 3
     
( i ) A  0 1 2  ( ii ) B   0 3 1 ( iii ) C  0 1 4 
2 1 0   3 4 2  5 6 0 
     
 1 2 0 1
1 3 0 1 1 1   
    3 2 1 0
( iv ) D   2 2 1  ( v ) E  1 1 1  ( vi ) F   
1 0 2 1 
 4 1 1 1 2 4   
    0 3 1 2
 
0 1 0 3 
 
1 2 3 1
( vii ) G   
0 0 2 2 
 
 1 2 4 1 
3. Find the value(s) of k such that A has no inverse (singular).

1 0 3  1 k 2
k  1 3     
( i) A  ( ii ) B  2 1 0  ( iii ) C   2 0 k 
 2 k  2  4 2 k   3 1 4 
   
Exercises (Inverse of a Matrix)- Answer:
1. ( i ) det A  6  0.Invertible.( ii ) det B  3  0.Invertible.

( iii ) detC  0.Not Invertible.( iv ) det D  0. NotInvertible.
( v ) det E  1344  0.Invertible. ( vi ) det F  0. NotInvertible.
 1 3 3 
 2 4 4 
  2 8 5   24 18 5
2. ( i ) A   1
1

3 1 1   1  
  ( ii ) B   3 11 7  ( iii ) C   20 15 4 
2 2
   9 34 21  5 4 1 
  
 1 
1

1
 2 4 4 
 9 7 13 17 
1 3 3  2 6 2   
1  1  1  12 2 10 8 
( iv ) D    2 1 1 ( v )
1
E   3 3 0  ( vi )
1
F 1  
5 6 22  5 1 17 7 
 6 13 8   1 3 2   
   
 2 4 2 6 
 7 
2 3 2 4
 
 1 3 3 3 
( vii ) G 
1
2
 
0 1 0 1
 1 
0 1  1
 2 
4
3. ( i) k  1, 4 ( ii ) k  24 ( iii ) k   ,  1
3
1.9 Elementary Matrices
Definition (Elementary Matrix)
An nxn matrix is called elementary matrix if it can be obtained from the

identity matrix In by single elementary row operation.
Examples
Let 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 
3 0 0  0 1 0 0  E3  
0
E1   E2   and
0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
     
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1
3R2 R1  R3 R4 – 2R2
1.9 Elementary Matrices (cont.)
Example.
Which of the following matrices are elementary? For those that are, describe the
corresponding elementary row operation.
a.
Elementary - ERO 3R2
b. Not Elementary since not square matrix
c. Elementary - ERO R2 + 2R1
Not Elementary since two ERO - 2R2 & -1R3

d.
Exercises:
Determine whether the matrix is elementary. If it is, state the elementary row operation
(ERO) used to produce it.
a.
a. Elementary – ERO 2R2
b. Not elementary – two ERO
c. Elementary – ERO R3 + 5R1
b.
d. Not elementary – two ERO
c.
d.
Exercises:
Let A, B, C be
Find,
i. Elementary matrix E such that EA = B

ii. Elementary matrix E such that EA = C
iii. Elementary matrix E such that EB = A

K00228 - 20180909222020 - Lecture Note - Chapter 1

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K00228 - 20180909222020 - Lecture Note - Chapter 1

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CHAPTER 1

An m x n matrix is an array of numbers with m rows

The standard mathematical convention to represent matrices:

1. A matrix can be denoted by an uppercase letter such as

3. diagonal entries & diagonal matrix

1.3.1 Matrix Addition

Definition (Matrix Addition)

1.3.2 Scalar Multiplication

Definition (Scalar Multiplication)

Note (Matrix Subtraction):

1.3.3 Matrix Multiplication

Definition (Matrix Multiplication)

1.3.4 Matrix Power

If A is a square matrix and r , s are nonnegative integers, then

1.3.5 The Transpose of a Matrix

The transpose of an m nmatrix A is the n matrix

A square matrix A is symmetric if and only if Aij  A ji

A is symmetric but B is not symmetric.

1.4.1 Properties of Matrix Addition & scalar Multiplication

1.4.1 Properties of Matrix Addition & scalar Multiplication

1.4.1 Properties of Matrix Addition & scalar Multiplication

Determine whether the matrix product is associative.

1.4.2 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Note: Multiplication is not commutative. Therefore, it is not necessary AB =

1.4.2 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Show that the matrix product is not commutative (AB  BA)

1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices

1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices (cont.)

1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices (cont.)

1.4.4 Properties of Transposes

Then, A + AT and BBT are symmetric.

Note that BBT is symmetric even though B is not a square

Exercise (Matrix Operations):

Computed the indicated matrices(if possible).

(a) Find (i) c11 (ii) c21 , where C = BT B.

4. Solve for x, y and z in the matrix equation

5. Solve the equation for X, given that :

Exercise (Matrix Operations) (Answer):

The method of elimination on a linear system is equivalent to

Definition (Elementary Row Operations)

Some notations for the three elementary row operations:

a. Interchange the first and second row.

b. Multiply the second row by ½ to produce a new first row.

Definition. (Row Echelon Form)

Definition (Row Equivalent)

Matrices A and B are row equivalent if there is a sequence of

are row equivalent.

How can we tell whether

Exercises (ERO & REF):

1. Determine whether the matrix is in row-echelon form (REF).

Exercises (ERO & REF):

2. Reduce the following matrices into REF form.

3. Show that the given matrices are row equivalent by showing

Definition ( Determinant of a 3x3 matrix)

The determinant of a matrix A also denoted by | A |.

Aij is the (i,j)-

The pattern of the signs:

 2(6)  3(12)  1(2)

To define the determinant of

Definition (Minors & Cofactors of a Matrix)

The (i,j)-cofactor of A will be

With this notation, definition of nxn matrix becomes

Sign pattern of Cofactors:

Referred as cofactor expansion

(a) det A  a31C31  a32C32  a33C33

Compute the determinant of the following matrix using the

3rd column since

det A  a13C13  a23C23  a33C33  a34C34

 0C13  2C23  0C33  0C34

2. Find the determinants of matrices in Question 1 by using the method of

2. Same answer as in Question 1.

An n x n matrix is an upper triangular if aij = 0, for all i > j, and is lower

A square matrix is a diagonal matrix if

Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular matrix

Upper triangular matrices:

Lower triangular matrices are: