Analysis of Spatial Data
Josef Fürst
1
2
Learning objectives
In this section you will learn:
• how thematic overlays work,
• overview of the diversity of spatial analysis tools and
• overview of methods to query and select by attributes
and spatial criteria to serve as a basis for GIS based
decision support.
3
Outline
Introduction
Geometric overlay
Analysis in attribute space
Integrated analysis of spatial and thematic data
Raster-GIS functions
Example: Delineation of hydrologically similar areas
Summary
4
Introduction
Most important functionality of GIS
GIS data basis as a model of reality
„single layer“ analyses
„multiple layers“ analyses
Useful distinction from a technical viewpoint:
• Functions for analysis in attribute space
• Functions for analysis by spatial (topological) criteria
5
Geometric overlay
Statements about a location combining information
from 2 or more thematic maps „overlay“ of 2 or
more maps
requires common spatial reference
In raster-GIS automatically met
Geometric overlay (intersection) in vector-GIS
required overlay operators
6
Geometric overlay
Topological fragmentation
7
Analysis in attribute space
query,
generalisation,
calculation.
8
Query
Analysis in attribute
space
Selection of attribute data, without changes in
database
SQL (Structured Query Language)
SELECT KENNUNG, STATIONSNAME, X_KOORDINATE, Y_KOORDINATE,
MESSPUNKT
FROM HEADER_HYDRO
WHERE MESSVARIABLE = ´GRUNDWASSERSTAND´ AND MESSGERAET =
´LICHTLOT´;
ArcView 3.x:
9
Generalisation
Analysis in attribute
space
Classification of data by user defined rules, without
change of existing attributes
• Clearer view of inherent patterns
Examples:
• Weekly and monthly precipitation depths,
• Soil classification by hydrological criteria,
• Classification of slopes for stability analysis,
• Hydrological Response Units (HRU)
10
Generalisation
Analysis in attribute
space
Generalisation by classifying an attribute
11
Calculations
Analysis in attribute
space
Operations:
• arithmetic,
• mathematical (funktions) and
• logical (binary)
E.g.: Amount of groundwater = Thickness x porosity
SQL DBMS like Oracle or MS Access such attributes
are commonly stored in a „view“ or „query“
12
Integrated analysis of spatial and
thematic data
The focus of GIS
Power of analytical functions and software
architecture varies
• Wide range from specialised modules for catchment
analysis (e.g., WMS) to libraries of elementary general
purpose spatial operators
13
Selection, classification and measuring
Integrated analysis
combined spatial and attribute based selection
E.g.: Select features of active themes that Are
completely within the selected features of
Grenzen3.shp
14
Classification
Integrated analysis
(Re-)assignment of thematic attributes
Examples:
• Elevation zones from DEM
• Re-classification of a soil map by hydrological criteria
• Scale-dependent reduction of number of attribute
values, e.g. in a map of land cover
15
Measure
Integrated analysis
Assess numbers, distances, lengths, areas, volumes
• Many of these are automatically maintained in GIS
(area and perimeter of polygons, length of lines),
• Sometimes elaborate procedures (e.g. travel time as a
function of road conditions, vehicle and current traffic)
16
Overlays (Intersection)
Integrated analysis
M:N relationship between entities of 2 maps with
different geometrical basis
1:N relationship between a polygon and ist attributes
by geometric-topological intersection
After intersection analysis is done in a single layer
Operations:
• arithmetic (addition, multiplication, ...) and
• logical (AND, OR, XOR) operations as well as
• Application of conditions (rules)
17
Overlays (Intersection)
Integrated analysis
Example of arithmetic overlay
1
2
2
1
3 3
D u r c h w u r z e lu n g s t ie f e [ c m ] B o d e n fe u c h te [% ]
W T ID W T IE F E Root depth B F ID B F E U C H T E Soil moisture
1 50 1 23
2 75 3 34
3 89 2 18
In te rs e c t
Water available for plants
1 /1 2 /2 P fla n z e n v e r fü g b a r e s W a s s e r [m m ]
P W A S S E R = W T IE F E * B F E U C H T E / 1 0
2 /1 W T ID W T IE F E B F ID B F E U C H T E P W A S S E R
1 50 1 23 115
3 /3 2 75 1 23 173
3 /1 2 75 2 18 135
3 89 1 23 205
3 /2 3 89 3 34 303
3 89 2 18 160
18
Overlays (Intersection)
Integrated analysis
Example of a logical overlay
1
2
2
1
3 3
D u r c h w u r z e lu n g s t ie f e [ c m ] B o d e n fe u c h te [% ]
W T ID W T IE F E
1 50
Root depth B F ID B F E U C H T E
1 23
Soil moisture
2 75 3 34
3 89 2 18
In te rs e c t
Root depth > 80 AND Moisture < 20
1 /1 2 /2 T ie f e D u r c h w u r z e lu n g , g e r in g e F e u c h te
W T IE F E > 8 0 A N D B F E U C H T E < 2 0
2 /1 W T ID W T IE F E B F ID B F E U C H T E
1 50 1 23
3 /3 2 75 1 23
3 /1 2 75 2 18
3 89 1 23
3 /2 3 89 3 34
3 89 2 18
19
Overlays (Intersection)
Integrated analysis
Point in Polygon overlay by Spatial Join in ArcView
3.x: groundwater sites receive an attribute „Land cover“
(Bedeckung) by spatial join with the map „Land cover“
(Bodenbedeckung).
20
Overlays (Intersection)
Integrated analysis
Line in Polygon overlay: rivers are assigned the surrounding
land cover by INTERSECT of the maps „Rivers“ and „Land
cover“
21
Surface operations
Integrated analysis
neighbourhood of a point is included in the evaluation
for this point
Generally a „smooth“ surface is assumed
• Topographic functions (slope, aspect, relief),
• illumination (e.g. hillshading),
• Pseudo-3D displays (Perspective) and
• Interpolation.
22
Connectivity
Integrated analysis
Entities with common properties AND spatial
connection
• Contiguity
• Proximity: based on measures of distance, including
time, cost, etc. E.g. buffer zones, Thiessen polygons,
flow times).
• Spread: e.g. floods, pollutants.
• Seek: optimal paths, according to decision rules,
• Network functions: utilities, drainage network.
23
Connectivity
Integrated analysis
contiguity:
• E.g: nature reserve should contain forest, swamp and
rivers, min. size 400 km2 and nowhere narrower than
10 km.
Bodenbedeckung Zusammenhängende Flächen
Wald Acker
Sumpf Fluss
24
Connectivity
Integrated analysis
proximity:
• E.g.: buffer zones near rivers: width depends on land
cover
25
Connectivity
Integrated analysis
proximity:
• E.g: Thiessen-Polygons: raster based assign
proximity, vector based line of symmetry
26
Connectivity
Integrated analysis
Spread (flood, noise, pollutants in groundwater)
• in GIS usually only simplified solutions
Seek
• Find optimal path using decision rules 1
1
1 2
Network functions (roads, 1
1
1
1
sewers, utilities, rivers) 2 1 1 W 1
a ld
• Movement of resources 2 2
a is t
1
Fe l
1
• Strahler order 1
da
3
is t
2
1
3 2
A is t
3
7
D ona u 7
27
Raster-GIS functions
Local functions
• Only one cell, neighbouring cells do not influence result
Focal functions
• Result for a cell is based on neighbourhood cells (linear
filter, mean, median, standard deviation )
Zonal functions
• Evaluated for a zone, i.e. for all cells with a common
value
Global functions
• Calculations for the whole grid (distances, delineation of
catchments)
28
Example: Delineation of hydrological
response units
Semi-distributed conceptual models with HRU
concept (e.g. PRMS)
Important steps:
• Selection of input data: 5 layers, DEM (slope, aspect),
land use, soil, geology
• classification input data into small number of categories
(3-6).
• Overlay of input layers.
• Reduction of the resulting number of unique attribute
combinations (HRU) by analysis and classification in
DBMS
29
Water balance of the Danube basin
B odenbedeckung
HRU using
1 1 K la s s e n
DEM (250 m resolution),
maps of land cover and
hydrological sub-basins K la s s ifik a tio n
3 K la s s e n
K la s s ifik a t io n
3 K la s s e n
B odenbedeckung
W a ld , G r a s ,
v e g e ta tio n s fr e i
O v e r la y
Z o n e n ( H R U ) f ü r B ila n z m o d e ll
O v e r la y a u s k la s s if iz ie r t e m D H M ,
B o d e n b e d e c k u n g , E in z u g s -
g e b ie ts g r e n z e n
30
Summary
Analysis of spatial data is the most important function
of GIS
Single-layer analysis is done within 1 layer
Multi-layer analysis
• Transform into single-layer problem by geometric-
topological intersection 1:M relationship between
object and attributes.
Analyses in attribute space include query,
generalisation and calculations based on the
attributes only
Integrated analysis of spatial and attribut data
involves attributes, location and topology
selection, classification and measure, overlay
(intersection), surface operations, analysis of spatial
connectivity
