Accelerometer Types
• Common Accelerometer Types
– Resistive
• Strain Gauge
• Piezoresistive
• Micromachined
• Thin-Film
– Capacitive
– Fiber Optic
– Servo or Force Balance
– Vibrating Quartz
– Piezoelectric
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Accelerometer Types
• Resistive Operating Principle
– Voltage output of resistor bridge changes proportionally with applied acceleration
+ Signal + Power - Power - Signal
Fixed Resistors
Sensing Resistor #1
Mass
Flexure
Sensing Resistor #2
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Accelerometer Types
• Capacitive Operating Principle
– Utilizes frequency modulation technique through varying capacitor bridge
Power Ground Signal
Fixed Capacitors Built-In Electronics
~
Insulator
Sensing Capacitor #1
Flexure Mass
Sensing Capacitor #2
Insulator
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Accelerometer Types
• Resistive / Capacitive
– Typical Characteristics
• Measure down to 0 Hz (DC response)
• Limited dynamic range (<80 dB = 10,000:1)
• Limited high frequency range (<10 kHz)
• Often a damped frequency response (0.7% of critical)
• Sensitivity may vary with input (mV/g/V)
• Traditionally fragile (limited shock protection)
• Operates multi-conductor cable (at least 3 wires)
• Micro-machined versions are small and lightweight
• Performance matches cost ($10 to $1000 USD)
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Accelerometer Types
• Resistive / Capacitive
– Applications
• Low frequency and/or long duration events
– Ride quality
• Automobile road response
• Amusement park rides
• Elevator movement
• Motion simulators
– Aerospace structure modal analysis surveys
– Crash dummy instrumentation
• Tilt sensors
• Airbag or automobile alarm triggering devices
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Accelerometer Types
• Fiber Optic Operating Principle
– Amount of light gathered by receivers is proportional to applied acceleration
Power Ground Signal
Built-In Electronics
Transmitter
Receiver Receiver
Reflective Surface
Flexure Mass Flexure
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Accelerometer Types
• Fiber Optic
– Similar characteristics and applications as resistive and
capacitive sensors
– Additional features
• Provision for remotely locating electronics
– High temperature operation to 1000 F (537 C)
– Cabling is transmitting only light, which consequently
eliminates the possibility of RF and EM interference in
“noisy” environments
– Traditionally, light loss in long cables and connections
was a consideration
– Expensive sensors, cabling and signal conditioning
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Accelerometer Types
• Servo or Force Balance Operating Principle
– Feedback force required to maintain uniform capacitance is proportional to acceleration
Power Ground Signal
Sensing Amplifier Feedback Power Amplifier
Stationary
Support
Capacitance Gap
Flexure
Magnetic
Coil Insulator
Mass
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Accelerometer Types
• Vibrating Quartz
– Resonant frequency difference between elements is proportional to applied acceleration
Power Ground Signal
Inverting Amplifier
Frequency Tracking Amplifiers
Flexure Mass Vibrating Crystal #2
Vibrating Crystal #1 Mass Flexure
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Accelerometer Types
• Force Balance / Vibrating Quartz
– Typical Characteristics
• Measure down to 0 Hz (DC response)
• Wide dynamic range (>120 dB = 1,000,000:1)
• Extremely stable over time and temperature (ppm)
• Limited high frequency range (<1 kHz)
• Poor overload survivability (<100 g’s)
• Force balance may exhibit large magnetic sensitivity
• Very expensive (~$1000 USD)
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Accelerometer Types
• Piezoelectric
– Force on self-generating crystal provides charge output proportional to acceleration
Signal/Power Ground
Voltage or Charge Amplifier
Preload Ring
Mass
Piezoelectric Crystal
Base
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Piezoelectric Materials
• Piezoelectric Effect
– Word origin comes from the greek work “piezen” which
translates “to squeeze”.
– The generation of an electrical signal by a dielectric material
as it is subjected to a mechanical stress.
F
+ + + + + + Piezoelectric
- - - - - - Material
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Piezoelectric Materials
• Piezoelectric Materials
– Naturally Piezoelectric
• Rochelle Salt
– One of first materials used to make sensors
• Tourmaline
– Sensitive to hydrostatic pressure
• Exotic, “Man-Made” Materials
– Langasite
– Lithium Niobate
• Cultured Quartz
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Piezoelectric Materials
• Piezoelectric Materials
– Artificially Polarized
• Piezofilm
– Made of a special polymer - PVDF
• Piezoceramics
– Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
– Bismuth Titanate
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Mechanical Design
• Piezoelectric Sensing Element
– Mechanical transduction mechanism as important as
piezoelectric material selection
– The key is to design the sensor so that it only measures the
parameter of interest and minimizes the affects of any outside
environmental conditions
– Types
• Compression Mode
• Flexural Mode
• Shear Mode
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Mechanical Design
• Shear Mode
– Most commonly utilized design based on overall performance
+ - - +
Seismic Preload Ring
Mass + - - +
+ - - + Piezoelectric
+ - - + Crystal
(d26-Quartz)
(d15-Piezoceramic)
Center
Post
Signal (+)
Ground (-)
Optional Built-In
Electronics
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Accelerometer Types
• Piezoelectric
– Typical Characteristics
• Dynamic events only (>0.2 Hz)
• Wide dynamic range (>100dB = 100,000:1)
• Wide frequency bandwidth (<1 Hz to >10 kHz)
• Solid-state (No moving parts)
• Self-generating piezoelectric elements require no power
• Operates over two conductors
• Rugged (5,000 g’s)
• High temperature charge versions operate to 1000 F (537 C)
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Accelerometer Types
• Summary
– Many different types of accelerometers are available and they
often represent an excellent choice for making vibration
measurements; however, accelerometers are not well-suited for
all applications as no single sensor can meet every vibration
requirement.
– Don’t underestimate the sensor selection process as it is easy to
generate “bad data” without the proper transducer.
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Calibration Methods
• Absolute Method
– Single channel test where the sensor is subjected to a known,
accurate and reliable measure of “a”
• Drop Test
• Gravity Inversion Test
• Handheld Shaker
Amplifier, Voltmeter,
Known Test
Attenuator, Analyzer,
Measure of Sensor
Filter, Etc... Scope, Etc...
“a”
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Calibration Methods
• Drop Test
– Accelerometer is allowed to free-fall in Earth’s gravity which
varies by less than +/-0.5% around the globe
Impact Force
Fixed
Supports
Elastic Suspension
Flexible Cords
Monofilament Line
Mounting
Mass Signal Out
Earth’s Gravity Accelerometer
0 Deg Latitude: 9.78 m/s2
90 Deg Latitude: 9.32 m/s2
Altitude Correction: -3 mm/s2 per 1000 m above sea level
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Calibration Methods
• Gravity Inversion Test
– Sensor is rotated 180 Degrees in the Earth’s gravity so that it
experiences a 2g (-1 g to +1 g) step function
• Requires long DTC or DC response for accurate results
• Signal Conditioning and readout device must be DC coupled
Rotation Fixture
Test Sensor
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Calibration Methods
• Relative Method
– Dual channel test where the test sensor and calibrated
reference are subjected to the identical input acceleration. The
ratio of the output signals provides the calibration factor.
• Laser Fringe Counting (Primary Method)
• Back-to-Back Calibration (Secondary Method)
Amplifier,
Test
Attenuator,
Sensor
Filter, Etc... Voltmeter,
Input Analyzer,
Signal Scope, Etc...
Amplifier,
Reference
Attenuator,
Sensor
Filter, Etc...
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Calibration Methods
• Laser Calibration
– Non-contacting measurement principle
• Structure not affected by measurement device
– Utilizes “fringe counting” of laser light
• This method provides primary calibration as it is based on
a constant on nature…the wavelength of light
– Expensive
– Requires relatively large accelerations at high frequencies
• 25 g’s at 5 kHz; 50 g’s at 10 kHz; 100 g’s at 20 kHz
– Procedure and set-up is documented in approved ISO
Standard ISO 5347-1
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Calibration Methods
• Back-To-Back Calibration
– Test sensor mounts directly to a reference accelerometer which
has been previously calibrated by primary means or by a
recognized laboratory
Test
Accelerometer
Vtest
Vref
Reference
Accelerometer
Instrument
Grade Shaker
Controllable
Acceleration Level
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