THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
Part B, Chapter 1
GOALS OF THE PSYCHOLOGIST
Describe
Predict
Explain
Control
How do we go about doing this?
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
watching animals or humans behave in their
normal environment
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
watching animals or humans behave in their
normal environment
Major Advantage
realistic picture of behavior
Disadvantages
observer effect: tendency of people or animals to behave
differently from normal when they know they are being
observed
participant observation: a naturalistic observation in which
the observer becomes a participant in the group being
observed (to reduce observer effect)
observer bias: tendency of observers to see what they
expect to see
blind observers: people who do not know what the research
question is (to reduce observer bias)
Each naturalistic setting is unique, and observations may
not hold.
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
LABORATORY OBSERVATION
watching animals or humans behave in a
laboratory setting
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
LABORATORY OBSERVATION
watching animals or humans behave in a
laboratory setting
Advantages
control over environment
allows use of specialized equipment
Disadvantage
artificial situation that may result in artificial
behavior
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
CASE STUDY
study of one individual in great detail
Advantage
tremendous amount of detail
Disadvantage
cannot apply to others
Famous Case Study
Phineas Gage
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DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
SURVEYS
Researchers will ask a series of questions about the
topic under study.
DESCRIPTIVE METHODS
SURVEYS
Given to a representative sample of the population:
(randomly selected subjects from a larger population)
Population
the entire group of people or animals in which the
researcher is interested
Advantages
data from large numbers of people
study covert behaviors
Disadvantages
Researchers have to ensure representative sample or the
results are not meaningful.
People are not always accurate.
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
CORRELATION
a measure of the relationship between two
variables
Variable: anything that can change or vary
Measures of two variables go into a mathematical
formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r),
which represents two things:
the direction of the relationship (sign)
the strength of the relationship (number)
Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers
to predict the value of the other variable.
E.g., distance from equator, average temperature
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
CORRELATION
Positive correlation: variables are related in the
same direction
As one increases, the other increases; as one
decreases, the other decreases.
Negative correlation: variables are related in
opposite direction
As one increases, the other decreases.
Correlation does not prove causation!
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FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
CORRELATION
The sign indicates if it is a positive or negative
correlation. The number itself indicates the
strength of the correlation.
no correlation = 0.0
perfect correlation = -1.00 or +1.00
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
CORRELATION
WHICH OF THESE REPRESENTS THE STRONGEST CORRELATION
COEFFICIENT BETWEEN STRESS AND LIKELIHOOD OF CANCER?
A. -.31
B. -0.2
C. 0.59
D. 0.38
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
EXPERIMENT
a deliberate manipulation of a variable to see
whether corresponding changes in behavior
result, allowing the determination of cause-and-
effect relationships
Operational Definition
definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be
directly measured
definition: aggressive play
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
EXPERIMENT
Independent Variable (IV)
the variable in an experiment that is manipulated by
the experimenter
IV: which TV show
Dependent Variable (DV)
the variable in an experiment that represents the
measurable response or behavior of the subjects in
the experiment
DV: aggressive play
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
EXPERIMENT
Experimental Group
subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the
independent variable
experimental group: watch violent TV
Control Group
Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to
the independent variable and who may receive a
placebo treatment (controls for confounding
variables).
control group: watch non violent TV – a normal TV
show that they usually watch
ENTER Which provides a baseline measure of behavior for
comparing whether or not the independent variable
had an effect on the dependent variable?
A. Experimental group
B. Control group
C. Placebo group
D. Double-blind researcher
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
EXPERIMENT
Review on your own if you want – experimental
basics:
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Random Assignment
the process of assigning subjects to the experimental
or control groups randomly, so that each subject has
an equal chance of being in either group
controls for confounding variables
Tv/aggression- what if we split on gender?
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
EXPERIMENT
Experimental Group
Random Assignment
SAMPLE Test for Differences
Control Group
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
EXPERIMENT
Placebo Effect
the phenomenon in which the expectations of the
participants in a study can influence their behavior
Just believing something works can make real
changes – in behavior, and biology!
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Will “monster spray” keep
monsters out of my brother’s
closet? It will if he believes me!
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
EXPERIMENT - PLACEBO EFFECT
Placebo = antidepressant?
To really study drug efficacy, placebos which cause side
effects are often used.
Placebo drunk!
Culture matters- injections more potent placebos in
US than Europe; difft placebo pill colors
Even when you know…
Evil twin “Nocebo” – can make
people physically ill!
Placebo surgery!
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
EXPERIMENT
Single-Blind Study
Subjects do not know whether they are in the experimental
or the control group (reduces placebo effect – more than if
they all thought they were in the experimental group).
Experimenter Effect
tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to
unintentionally influence the results of the study (e.g.
classroom expectation studies)
Double-Blind Study
Neither the experimenter nor the subjects know which
subjects are in the experimental or control group (reduces
placebo effect and experimenter effect).
FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
EXPERIMENT
Quasiexperimental Designs
not considered true experiments because of the
inability to randomly assign participants to the
experimental and control groups (for example, when
age is the variable of interest)
Used when not logically feasible or ethical to obtain a
randomized sample
E.g. studying effect of alcohol on a fetus
ACTIVITY
Answer ONE of these questions:
1. Observational Methods. Think of a research
question that could only be answered by using
observation. What question did you choose? Why
wouldn’t other methods be as effective?
2. Correlation. Think of an example of positive
correlation from your everyday life. Think of an
example of negative correlation. Can you think of a
third example of two variables that are not correlated at
all? Bonus: Can you think of a correlational relationship
which is NOT causal?
3. Hypothesis Testing. Think of an example of a
hypothesis that would be of interest to college students.
How would you test your hypothesis? Describe the
methods and variables you would use – independent
variable, dependent variable.
ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Ethics Committees
judge it according to its safety and consideration for
the participants in the study
In universities and institutions, usually referred
to as “Internal Review Board” (IRB) and you
cannot begin your experiment (e.g. thesis,
dissertation) without approval.
ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Common Ethical Guidelines:
The rights and well-being of participants must be weighed
against the study’s value to science.
Participants must be allowed to make an informed
decision about participation.
Deception must be justified.
Participants may withdraw from the study at any time.
Participants must be protected from risks or told
explicitly of risks.
Investigators must debrief participants, telling them the
true nature of the study and their expectations regarding
the results.
Data must remain confidential. If for any reason a study
results in undesirable consequences for the participant, the
researcher is responsible for detecting and removing, or
correcting, these consequences
