SAMPLING PLAN
– COMPLETE : Critical joints for higher quality
costly and time consuming
– PARTIAL : testing a certain number
less than the production numbers.
– SPECIFIED : pre determined order of selection
say every 5th sample joint. Less
quality level only can be achieved
as the producer know the
order in advance.
– RANDOM : the best of all and the producer
do not know the order and hence
ensure quality in all for
acceptance.
– Radiographic film digital system can
distinguish density difference of 0.05 to
0.01 percent. That is 2000 to 1000 gray
levels.
– Human eye can resolve gray levels at least
2% between 32 and 64.
– Human eye can distinguish the boundary
or the edge only when they differ 12% or
more.
– B/W has higher resolution and require
lower light levels.
– Color cameras produce more vivid image.
– Color imaging is important in viewing
where color change in the surface is one of
the indicative problem.
* Photographic technique
– The principal plane of focus means a
single plane of focus.
– The size of a negative is important,
120mm is better than 35 mm.
– Film speed is the reciprocal of exposure.
S=1/E.
– High speed film is having high ASA
number and requires less light but
produce grains in the final print.
SPEED B/W ASA NUMBERS Color ASA NUMBERS
SLOW 25 – 32 32-80
MEDIUM 164 – 125 100 - 160
FAST 160-100 200 - 1000
Forging defects detected by VT.
Burts : are internal forging discontinuity
they appear as scally, ragged
cavities inside the forging.
Trimming , descalling machining
would reveal the defect.
Laps : Laps are “folds” of metal forced into
the surface. A lap indication can
vary straight, linear, to wide U
shaped indication.
Cracks : Cracks are different from laps.
Cracks follows stress distribution. VT
aids to detect the defect 5x or 10x
magnifiers.
Visual Inspections of Pumps:-
1. Dismantle the pump as per the
manufacturer’s recommendations/ work
instructions.
2. Check for cavitation, erosion damage (most
affected parts are near the inlet of the impeller
vane).
3. Each impeller is inspected by PT
4. Check for pump shaft “straightness”
5. Always set journal shafts on V blocks.
6. Babbitted surface must be inspected for
smoothness and wear.
Discontinuities associated with welds
may be divided as follows:
1. Dimensional - distortion, incorrect weld size,
excess weld reinforcement.
2. Process - porosity, inclusion, IP, LOF,
crack, undercut, surface irregularities.
3. mechanical,
4. chemical,
5. base metal properties.
TYPICAL POWER BOILER VISUAL
TESTING ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA.
Discontinuities detected by VT.
Discontinuity Recommendations
Crack None permitted
Incomplete penetration None permitted
Lack of fusion None permitted
Undercut 0.75mm or 10 percent.
External porosity None permitted
External inclusion None permitted
(I) Stress corrosion :-
(a) Stress corrosion is the combined
action of corrosion and tensile stress.
(b) This stress may be from applied or
residual.
(c) Stress corrosion may be transgranular
or intergranullar.
(d) SS of 200 and 300 series are subjected to
stress corrosion in he presence chlorides
and from other halides.
(e) Residual tensile stresses are more often
the cause of stress corrosion cracking
than the tensile stress from the applied
force.
(continued ....
( II ) Cavitation :-
(a) Cavitation is a form of pitting.
(b) It occurs in low pressure region at
rapidly vibrating liquid / metal
surfaces.
(c) Aluminimum in contact with gold
in sea will corrode rapidly.
(d) Al, in contact with Fe less corrodes
(i) Crevice corrosion : is the primary cause
for automobile body corrosion creates
in the presence of debris with moisture.
Crevice corrosion also occurs under
bolts, nuts.
(ii) Ductile fracture :is a transgranular
forms necking.
Brittle fracture is intergranular and
without necking and sudden.
Higher temp. promotes
intergrenullar fracture.
continued..,
(iii) Brakes
drums:clutch plates in
automobile produce thermal fatigue
and fatigue cracks.
Thermal fatigue may be
prevented by designing the component
with curves rather than straight,
heating and cooling distort the curve
rather than forming residual stresses.
Expansion loops, bellows in
engines piping and tubing system
operate on this principle.
Creep
The change of physical properties of metal
at high temperature.
Three stage of creep.
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
As temp. increases the metal becomes soft
and deforms at lower stress levels.
Tubes, pipes change their shape and
become oval is an example of creep.
Video Technology :-
Photo cathode materials.
Cesium antimony with quantum efficiency
10 to 30% photo conductors are
semiconductors.
Selenium was the earliest known
photoconductor.
Modern developments have brought lead
sulphide, thallous sulfide cadmium selenide.
All photo conductive cells require
external power source, because their
electrical resistance varies in response to
illumination.
Photo Voltalic Devices
They are true energy converters light
falling on such cells immediately converts
into electrical pulses and produces
current.
Light measuring devices such as
photographic exposure meters.
Halitation due to refraction of light on a
curved screen of a TV picture tube.
SAFETY IN VISUAL AND OPTICAL TEST.
1. The biological effect of infra red radiation is called
hyperthameia.
2. For the near ultraviolet region (from 320nm to
the edge of the visible spectrum)
the total irradiance incident on the
unprotected skin or eye should not
exceed 1m W * per cm., square, for
more than 1000 seconds.
Or the eye should not receive energy
of 1J per square cm.
(continued ....
3. Blue hazard: It is used in conjunction with
with thermal factor to calculate exposure
duration that do no damage the retina.
Retina damage by blue light can
produce 10 to 100 times retinal
damage than any other longer wave
lengths.
4. Eye protection filters : welder’s goggle.
Properties of Metals :
1. Very hard and brittle.
5. Very soft and ductile.
Slope of the straight line is called modulus of
elasticity.
It measures the stiffness of the metal.
Changing alloy hardness does not change
stiffness.
For steel the modulus of elasticity
can be explained as follows.
Elastic deflection under load is a function of
components section and not the composition,
not heat treatment or hardness.
(continued ....
STRESS
Stress is proportional to strain Hook
law.
Almost all metal obeys this law but
not gray cast iron.
The elastic properties of gray cast
iron are determined by the size shape
and distribution of graphite flakes.
Light – illuminates the test object for the
camera to form video image.
Video image is degitized in two
dimensional memory.
Image is divided into rows and columns,
and each part is called pixels
Each pixel has an integer number ( 0 or 1 )
which represents darkness or brightness.
This integer level is called gray level.
TYPES OF BORESCOPES
VISUAL INSPECTION
VISUAL INSPECTION EQUIPMENT
