Chapter 7
Diversity Technique for
Mobile System
Introduction
Wireless communication requires signal
processing techniques that improves the link
performance in mobile environment
3-tecniques which can be used to improve
received signal quality
-Equalization
-Channel Coding
-Diversity
Equalization
Equalization compensates for ISI created
by multipath
If modulation BW exceeds Bc of channel
ISI occurs and signal spreads in time into
adjacent symbols
Channel coding
This improves the small scale link by adding redundant
bits in transmitted message so that if any fade occurs
in channel the data may still be recovered at receiver
At transmitter, message is coded and then message is
modulated for transmission
Channel coding is used by receiver to detect or correct
some of the errors introduced by channel
At the receiver message is demodulated first and then
decoded hence it is called Post Detection Technique
3 type of channel coding method
-Block codes
-Convolution codes
-Turbo codes
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Fundamental of channel
coding
2 types of channel codes
-Error detection codes
-Error correction codes
The introduction of redundant bits increases the raw
data rate hence increases BW
Error detection
7 bits of data with parity bit=byte
even
odd
0000000 00000000
10000000
1010001 11010001
01010001
If an odd number of bits (including the parity bit) are changed in
transmission of a set of bits then parity bit will be incorrect and will thus
indicate that an error in transition has occurred. Therefore, parity bit is an
error detecting code, but is not an error correcting code as there is no way
to determine which particular bit is corrupted. The data must be discarded
entirely, and re-transmitted from scratch
5
3-basics types of Error
correction and Error
detection codes
Block code
Convolutional code
Turbo code
Block Code
In this parity/check bits are added to blocks of
message bits to make codewords or code blocks
In block encoder, k information are encoded in n
code bits
Total of n-k redundant bits are added to k
information for the purpose of detection and
correction of errors
It is referred to as (n,k) code
Rate of code is Rc=k/n
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2 other parameters are
-Code distance
-Code weight
The ability of block code to correct error is a futn of
code distance
Distance of a code:
The distance between 2 codewords is number of
elements in which 2 codewords Ci and Cj differ
If the code used is binary than distance is called hamming distance
The Hamming distance between:
1011101 and 1001001 is 2.
2143896 and 2233796 is 3.
"toned" and "roses" is 3.
Weight of the code:
-The weight of the codeword of length N is number
of non zero elements in codeword
-In binary code weight is basically the number of
1s in code word
w(Ci)= N Ci,l
Examples
Alphabet
0,1
0,1
0,1
' ',a-z
l=1
string
11101
11101000
00000000
hello world
hamming weight
4
4
0
10
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Error correction coding is more sophisticated than error detection
coding. Its aim to detect and locate errors in transmission. Once
located, the correction is trivial: the bit is inverted
Block code is also called hamming code
Consider example of a (11, 7) code.
Consider a Hamming code to detect and correct for single-bit errors
assuming each codeword contains a seven-bit data field
For example. Such a coding scheme requires four check bits since,
with this scheme, the check bits occupy all bit positions that are
powers of 2. Such a code is thus known as an (11, 7) block code with
a rate of 7/11.
For example, the bit positions of the value 1001101 are:
Bit Position 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Bit value
1 0 0 x 1 1 0 x 1 x x
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The four bit positions marked with x are used for the check bits, which are derived as follows. The
four-bit binary numbers corresponding to those bit positions having a binary 1 are added together
using modulo 2 arithmetic and the four check bits are then the four-bit sum:
11 = 1011
7 = 0111
6 = 0110
3 = 0011
1001
The transmitted codeword is thus:
Bit Position 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Bit value 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1
Similarly, at the receiver, the four-bit binary numbers corresponding to those bit positions having
a binary 1, including the check bits with a 1, are again added together and, if no errors have
occurred, the modulo 2 sum should be zero:
11 = 1011
8 = 1000
Note:modulo2=>XOR
7 = 0111
6 = 0110
3 = 0011
1 = 0001
0000
Now consider a single-bit error; say bit 11 is corrupted from 1 to 0. The new modulo 2 sum would
now be:
11
8 = 1000, 7 = 0111, 6 = 0110, 3 = 0011, 1 = 0001
result=
1011 (11)
Example of Block code
Hamming code
Hadamard code
Golay code
Cyclic code
BCH codes
Reed Solomon code (RS code)
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Convolution code
Convolution code are different from Block
code , In Block code information are
grouped into distinct blocks and then
encoded
In convolutional code, continuous seq of
information bits is mapped into a
continuous seq of encoder o/p bits
Convolution codes have memory that uses
previous bits to encode the following bits
It is denoted by (n,k,l), where l is code
memory depth
n encoded bits
k original information
Code rate is k/n
(always <1)
Convolution coding achieves larger gain
than Block code
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Convolution Encoder
example 1
Convolutional encoder is
a finite state machine
(FSM
Thus the generated code
is a function of input and
the states of the FSM
In this (n,k,L)=(2,1,2)
encoder
Another eg could be
(3,2,1) convolution
encoder k=2
here code rate is 2 / 3
mj-2
mj-2mj-1 mj
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Example: (3,2,1)
Convolutional encoder
x ' j m j 3 m j 2 m j
x ' j mj3 m j1 mj
x ' ' j m j 2 m j
Here each message bit influences
a span of C = n(L+1)=3(1+1)=6
successive output bits
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Ways of representing convolutional
Generator matrixcode
Generator polynomial
State diagram
Tree diagram
Logic table
Trellis diagram
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Decoding of convolutional
code
Decoder estimates the encoded input
information
Techniques of decoding convolution code
- Vertibi decoder
- Maximum likelihood decoding
- Feedback decoding
- Stack Algorithm
- Fano sequential decoding
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Diversity
Small scale fade results in deep & rapid
amplitude fluctuation
These fades are caused due to multiple
reflection
Diversity is technique used to compensate for
fading
It is implemented using 2 or more receiving
antennas
In order to prevent deep fade microscopic
antenna or space diversity is used
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The most common diversity is spatial diversity
Other diversity techniques are
-Antenna polarization diversity
-Frequency diversity
-Time diversity
Spatial/space Diversity:
Wireless system consist of BS & MS, the existence
of direct path between T & R is not guaranteed
In this many antennas are spaced at few meters
and connected to common receiving system, while
one antenna sees null signal and one of the
antenna may see a signal peak and receiver is
able to select antenna with best signal at any time
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(mitigate deep fades)
General block of space
diversity
1
2
.
.
.
m
Antenna
A1
A2
.
.
.
Switching logic
Or Demodulator
output
Am
Variable gain
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Classification of Space
Diversity
Selection Diversity
Feedback or Scanning Diversity
Maximal Ratio Combining
Equal Gain Diversity
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Selection diversity
In selection diversity, m
1
switching ckts or
demodulators are used to
provide m diversity branches
whose gain are adjusted to
2
provide same avg SNR for
.
each branch
.
Receiver branch having
.
highest instantaneous SNR is
m
selected and connected to Antenna
demodulator
A1
A2
.
.
.
Switching logic
or demodulator
output
Am
Variable gain
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Feedback or scanning
diversity
M signals are scanned in fixed
sequence until best signal is
found with level above the
predetermined threshold
Signal is then received until it falls
below the threshold level
If signal strength fall below the
threshold level scanning process
is again initiated
The advantage of this diversity is
that it is simple to implement
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Frequency diversity
This is implemented by transmitting information
on more than one carrier freq
When diversity is needed the appropriate traffic is
simply switched to backup freq
This technique has disadvantage that it requires
extra BW
New OFDM modulation technique eliminates the
use of freq diversity by providing simultaneous
modulation of signal by several orthogonal
frequencies so that if particular freq undergoes a
fade , a signal will still be recovered
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Time diversity
Here multiple repetition signals will be
received with independent fading condition
One modern implementation of time diversity
involves the use of RAKE receiver for CDMA
By Demodulating the several replica of
transmitted CDMA signal, where each replica
experiences a particular multipath delay
Then the RAKE receiver aligns the replicas in
time so that better estimate of original signal
is formed at receiver
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RAKE Receiver
26
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Assume M correlators are used in CDMA to capture m strongest
multipath component
Correlator 1 is synchronized to strongest multipath m1
m2 arrive 1 later than m1, where 1 - 2 is assume to be > than chip
rate
Correlator 2 is synchronized to m2
If only single correlator is used in receiver ,Once the o/p of single
correlator is corrupted ,receiver cannot correct the value( large bit
error)
In RAKE Receiver if o/p of one correlator is corrupted other may not
be, and corrupted signal may be discontinued through weighing
process
M
Consider the o/p of M correlators are Z1,Z2,.ZM they are weighted
by 1 , 2 3 M
respectively
m=1
RAKE receiver is used
when multipath delays are >> chip rate
Z=only
mZm
If multipath delays are << chip rate no RAKE receiver
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