Appendix
Section A : Secondary
Storage
Magnetic Tape
A tape drive is used to record bits of data
onto magnetic tape by winding the tape
from one reel to the other and passing it
across a read/write head
The advantages are 1) large amounts of
data can be stored on magnetic tape at a
relatively low cost without. 2) It is reusable.
The disadvantage is that tapes record data
sequentially, making data retrieval slower
than direct access storage media.
Magnetic Disks
The data stored on magnetic disks
are nonvolatile.
Disk Address
Data Storage on a disk pack
Locating a record based on its
address
Optical Disks
Types of Optical Disks
* CD-ROM > (compact disc read-only
memory) is a secondary storage device
that contains data or programs
imprinted by the manufacturers.
* WORM disk > (write once, read many)
is a device that allows the user to write
to the disk one time.
An erasable optical disk > allows the
user to store and modify data on the
disk many times.
Section B : Legacy
Systems
Data Structures
Data structures constitute the physical and logical
arrangement of the data in files and databases.
Organization refers to the way records are
physically arranged on the secondary storage
device.
Access method is the technique used to locate
records and to navigate through the database file.
Flat-file Approach is a single view model that
characterizes legacy systems in which data files
are structured, formatted and arranged to suit the
specific needs of the owner or primary user of the
system.
Sequential Structure
Typically called sequential access
method
All records in the file lie in contagious
storage spaces in a specified
sequence by their primary key.
Sequential files are simple and easy
to process. The application starts at
the beginning of the file and
processes each record in sequence.
Direct Access Structures
Direct access structures store data at
a unique location known as address,
on a hard disk or floppy disk.
Indexed Structure
An indexed structure is so named
because, in addition to the actual
data file, there exists a separate
index that itself a file of record
address.
Indexed random file are dispersed
throughout a disk without regard for
their physical proximity to other
related records.
Virtual Storage Access Method
Structure
The virtual storage access method (VSAM)
structure is used for very large files that require
routine batch processing and a moderate degree of
individual record processing.
The VSAM structure is used for files that often
occupy several cylinders of contagious storage on a
disk.
The greatest disadvantage with the VSAM structure
is that it does not perform record insertion
operations efficiently.
A VSAM file has three physical components : the
indexes, the prime data storage area, and the
overflow area.
Hashing Structure
A hashing structure employs an algorithm
that converts the primary key of a record
directly into storage address. Hashing
eliminates the need for a separate index.
The principal advantage is access speed.
There are two significant disadvantages.
First, the technique does not use storage
space efficiently. The second is the reverse
of the first. Different record keys may
generate the same residual, which translate
into the same address.
Pointer Structure
The pointer structure is used to create a
linked-in file. This approach stores in a field of
the one record the address of a related record.
Types of Pointers
Physical address pointer contains the actual disk
storage location that the disk controller needs.
Relative address pointer contains the relative
position of a record in the file.
Logical key pointer contains the primary key of the
related record.
Batch Processing Using Sequential
Files
Each program in a batch system is
called a run.
Edit Run
Sort Runs
Update Runs
Keystroke
Sequential File Backup
Procedures
Batch Processing Using Direct
Access Files
Direct Access file Update and
Backup Procedures
General Logic For File
Updates
Start Up
Update Loop
End Procedures
Direct Access File Update
END
