CHAPTER 4

HEAT

4.1: Thermal
Equilibrium
4.1.1: Relationship between Temperature and Heat

1.

Temperature is a measure of the degree of

hotness of an object.

2.

A hot body has high temperature whereas a cold

body has a low temperature.

3.

Heat is a form of energy being transferred from a

hot body to a cold body.

4.

Heat and temperature are two different physical

quantities

Temperature
The degree of hotness
of an object
Base quantity
Unit: Kelvin (K) of
degree Celcius (oC)
Can be measured
using thermometer

Heat
A form of energy
Derived quantity
Unit: Joule (J)
No specific measuring
equipment

ble 4.1: The difference between heat and temperat

4.1.2: Thermal Equilibrium

aster rate of heat transfer

Body B
Body A

Body ABody B

equivalent

hot cold
Slower rate of heat transfer

Net heat
flow from
A to B

1.

In figure body A has higher temperature than

body B.

2.

The net flow of heat is from body A to body B.

3.

Temperature of body A will decrease while the

temperature of body B will increase.

4.

The net heat will flow from A to B until the

temperature of A is the same as the
temperature of B.

5.

In this situation, the two bodies are said to

have reached thermal equilibrium.

6.

When thermal equilibrium is reached, the net

rate heat of flow between two bodies is zero.
5

7.

Two bodies are said to be in thermal

equilibrium when:
a) they are at same temperature
b) the net heat of flow between the two
bodies is zero

8.

Application of thermal equilibrium:

a) Microwave oven
b) Refrigerator
c) Thermometer

alibration of liquid-in-glass thermometer

1.

In the construction of a thermometer, two fixed

temperatures are always chosen:
a) A lower fixed point, ice point:
The temperature at which pure ice melts at
0oC under standard atmospheric pressure
b)

The upper fixed point, steam point:

The temperature of steam from water that is
boils at 100oC under standard atmospheric
pressure
7

Thermometer without scale

x0 = 0 oC = l0 cm

x0

l0

ice

x100

x100 = 100 oC = l100 cm

l100

steam

Boiling water
Heat

 = ? oC = l cm

warm water

10

Steam point,
100oC
warm water,
ice, 0oC
l /cm

l100
l0

l100
l
l0
0

100

/oC

l l0
o

100 C

l100 l0
11

Example 4.1.2

1. Figure shows a thermometer. What is the

temperature, recorded by thermometer?
2.7 cm
0 oC

15.3 cm
100oC

12

2. Figure shows the graph of length of mercury

column against temperature for a mercuryin-glass thermometer.
cm
27
20
2
s

100

What is the temperature s?

13

Exercise 4.1.2

1. Figure shows a thermometer. What is the

temperature, recorded by thermometer?
98 cm
24 cm
2 cm
0 oC

100oC
14

2. Figure shows the graph of length of mercury

column against temperature for a mercuryin-glass thermometer.
cm
32
l
2
45 100

What is the value of l?

15

2.

Liquid-in-glass thermometer makes used the

change in volume of fixed mass of liquid (mercury
or alcohol) to measure temperature.

3.

The glass bulb is thin so that the heat transfer by

conduction is faster and thermal equilibrium can
reached faster.

4.

The narrow bore of the capillary tube makes the

thermometer more sensitive.

5.

Lower temperature can be measured by liquid-inglass thermometer filled with alcohol.

16

Mercury
Has freezing point of
-39oC and boiling point
of 357oC
Sensitive to changes
in temperature
Do not stick to the
glass wall of the
thermometer
Expand uniformly

Alcohol
Has freezing point of
-112oC and boiling
point of 78oC
React slowly to
changes in
temperature
Stick to the glass wall
of the thermometer

Does not expand

uniformly
Table
4.1:
comparison
It does
not
wet
the
It between
wets the mercury
tube
and alcohol
liquid-in-glass
tube

17

4.2: Understanding Specific Heat Capacity

4.2.1Heat Capacity
1.The heat capacity of an object is the amount
of heat required to increase the temperature
of the object by 1oC.
Heat absorbed or released by the object
Heat capacity
change in tempera ture

2.The heat capacity of an object depends on

the
18

4.2.2: Specific Heat Capacity

1.

The specific heat capacity, c, of a substance

is the quantity of heat needed to increase the
temperature of a mass of 1 kg by 1oC or 1 K.
Q
c
m

Where m = mass
Q = heat supplied
= change in temperature
2.

The unit of specific heat capacity is J kg -1 oC-1

or J kg-1 K-1.
19

3.

The quantity of heat absorbed or lost from a

body is given by:
Q mc

4.

A material which has a high specific heat

capacity has the following properties:
a) It takes a longer time to be heated
b) It does not lose heat easily
c) It is usually used as a heater insulator
d) It is a poor heat conductor
20

Specific heat capacity

Material
Human body
Methylated spirits
Air
Aluminium

(J kg-1 K-1)
3500
2500
1000
900

Glass

840

Iron
Copper
Brass
Lead
Mercury
Water
ice
liquid
steam

440
390
370
130
140
2100
4200
2000

Table 4.2:
Approximate
specific heat
capacities of some
common materials
21

4.2.3: Application of Specific Heat Capacity

Cooking Utensils
1.

A metal has low specific heat capacity and its

temperature increases easily when heated.

2.

Metals are normally used as pans and heating

filament of kettles so that food and water can
be heated faster.

3.

The handles of pots and pans are usually made

of materials of high specific heat capacity or
poor heat conductor.

22

Cooling System
1.

Water is normally used as a cooling agent in a

car radiator because
a) Water has high specific heat capacity
b) Water is easily available
c) Water does not react with engine component

ure shows water in the car acts as a cooling agent

23

24

Sea Breeze

25

1.

During the day, the land and the sea receive the
same amount of heat from the sun.

2.

The land is heated to a higher temperature than

the sea because water has higher specific heat
capacity than earth.

3.

This cause the air above the land to be hotter

than the air above the sea.

4.

The hot air above the land flows up and the cool
air from the sea flows towards the land.

5.

The movement of air causes wind to blow from

26

Land Breeze

27

1.

At night, the air above the land and the sea

release the heat to the atmosphere.

2.

Temperature of the sea decreases more slowly

than temperature of the land because water has
higher specific heat capacity than the earth.

3.

The land become colder than the sea.

4.

The hot air above the sea flows upwards the

cool air from the land flows towards the sea.

5.

The land breeze is produced due to the

movement of air from the towards the sea.
28

Example 4.2.2

1.A hot water tank contains 80 kg of water. The

water is initially at 30oC.
[specific heat capacity for water = 4200 J kg -1
o -1
C ]
a)Calculate the amount of energy that must
be transferred to the water to raise the
temperature to 70oC.
b)Calculate the time this will take when a 5
kW electric water heater is used.
29

Exercise 4.2.2

1.How much heat energy is required to raise

the temperature of 4 kg of iron bar from 32oC
to 52oC?
[specific heat capacity for iron = 453 J kg-1 oC1
]
2.An electric kettle has a power rating of 2.4
kW. How long does it take the kettle to heat
up 4.5 kg of tap water from 28oC to 100oC?
[specific heat capacity for water = 4200 J kg 1 o -1
C ]
30

Example 4.2.2
[Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 C-1;
Specific heat capacity of iron = 440 J kg-1 C-1]

2.A hot water tap delivers water at 80C. Ten

litres of hot water is added to a pail
containing 30 litres of water at 20C. What
will be the final temperature of the water in
the pail?
3.50 grams of iron is heated over a flame for
several minutes. It is then plunged into a
closed container containing 1.0 litre of cold
water, originally at 15C. After the
temperatures equalize, the water is now

31

Exercise 4.2.2

3.A steel ball bearing of mass 0.02 kg and

temperature 95C is placed into 0.2 kg of
water at 24C in a polystyrene cup. What is
the temperature when the ball bearing and
water have come to thermal equilibrium?
Assume that the exchange of heat is between
the ball bearing and water only.
[Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1
C-1; Specific heat capacity of steel = 450 J
kg-1 C-1]

32

Homework
For following questions refer to table 4.2 for specific heat capacities

1.100 g of water is heated to change its

temperature from 15C to 20C. How much
energy has been transferred to the water?
2.150 g of water is heated from 10C to 50C.
What amount of energy is required?
3.A 2.0 kg block of copper at 100C is put into
a large pot containing 5.0 litres of water at
20C. Assuming no energy is lost to the
surrounding environment, what is the final
temperature of the mixture?

33

4. (a) Equal masses of water and aluminium

are heated through the same temperature
range. Which one requires more energy?
(b) What is the ratio of the specific heat
capacity of aluminium to that of water?
(c) Equal amounts of energy are absorbed
by equal masses
of aluminium and water.
What is the ratio of the temperature rise of
the aluminium to that of water?
5.A 2000 watt kettle holds 3.0 kg of water at
20C. It is turned on for 5 minutes. If all the
energy supplied is used to heat the water,
Answer
will it boil?
1. 2100 J
2. 25200 J
3. 22.87oC
4. (a) water (b) 3 : 14
(c) 14 : 3
5. Water will not boil because the temperature rise is only 67.6oC

34

4.3: Understanding Latent Heat

4.3.1: Phase Change
1.All matter exists in three phase; solid, liquid
and gas.
2.Strong intermolecular forces hold the
vibrating molecules together in solid.
3.Adding heat energy can cause a breakdown
of this forces.
4.The solid melts and becomes a liquid and
similarly, heat may also cause a liquid to
35

4.3.2: Latent Heat

1.The heat supplied to a substance during
change of phase does not cause a change in
the temperature of the substance.
2.When a solid melts and liquid is boiling, heat
is absorbed but the temperature remain
constant.
3.The heat absorbed or heat released at
constant temperature during change of phase
is known as latent heat.
4.The four main changes of phase; melting,
36

Gas

BOILING
Latent heat absorbed

CONDENSATION
Latent heat released

MELTING
Latent heat absorbed

solid

SOLIDIFICATION
Latent heat released

liquid
37

Temperature, oC

Solid
+
liquid

Liqui
d+
gas

gas

liquid

solid

Figure 4.1: The heating curve

Time
38

Temperature, oC
gas

Liqui
d+
gas
liquid

Solid
+
liquid
solid

Figure 4.2: The cooling curve

Time
39

5.There are three common characteristics in

the four processes of change of phase
a)A substance undergoes a change of phase
at a particular temperature
b)Heat energy is transferred during change
of phase
c)During change of phase the temperature
remains even though there is transfer of
heat
6.The transfer of heat does not cause a change
in the kinetic energy of the molecules
40

Latent heat of fusion

41

1.During melting, the heat absorbed is used to

break up the bonds between the particles.
2.The heat absorbed by melting solid is known
as the latent heat of fusion.
3.For a liquid to solidify at its freezing point,
latent heat of fusion has to remove from it.

42

Latent heat of vaporisation

1.When a liquid boils, the heat absorbed is

used to
a)Completely break the force between
particles
b)Do work against atmospheric pressure
when the gasses expands into the
atmosphere
2.The heat absorbed during boiling is known as
the latent heat of vaporisation.
43

44

4.3.3: Specific Latent Heat

1.The amount of heat required to change the
phase of substance depends on the mass and
the type of material of the substance.
2.The specific latent heat, l, of substance is the
amount of heat required to change the phase
of 1 kg of substance at a constant temperature.
Q
l
m

rearrange Q ml

Where, Q = latent heat absorbed or released by the substance,

m = mass of substance
with unit in J kg-1

45

3.The specific latent heat of fusion, lf, of

substance is defined as the amount of heat
required to change 1 kg of substance from a
solid to liquid phase without change of
Q rearrange
temperature.
Q ml
l
f

4.The specific latent heat of vaporisation, lv, of

substance is defined as the amount of heat
required to change 1 kg of substance from a
Qphase
rearrange
liquid to lgas
without
change
of
Q

ml

v
v
m
temperature.
46

5.If heat is supplied electrically to change the

phase of substance, the equation Q = ml can
be written as:
Pt ml

Where, P = power of heater, unit in watt, W

t = time the heater is on, unit in seconds

47

Melting
Substan
point /
ce
o
C
Water
0

lf / J kg-1

Boiling
point /
o
C
100

lv / J kg-1

3.36 x
2.26 x
105
106
Mercury
-39
1.14 x
357
2.96 x
104
105
Ethanol
-114
1.08 x
78
8.55 x
105
105
Gold
1063
6.28 x
2808
1.72 x
104
106
Table 4.3: The specific latent heats of some common substance
Copper
1083
2.07 x
2566
4.73 x
105
106

48

Example 4.3 Refer value of c, lf and lv from table 4.2 and

1.How much energy has to be removed from 2 kg

of water at 10oC to produce a block of ice at
0oC?
2.An electric kettle contains 3.4 kg of water at
30oC.
(a) Calculate the amount of heat required to
boil away all the water after the boiling point
has been reached.
(b) If the power of the heater is 2.4 kW, what
is the time taken?
49

Exercise 4.3

1.Water of mass 0.36 kg at 25C is put into the

freezer compartment of a refrigerator.
Calculate the amount of heat that must be
removed to change the water completely into
ice.
[Specific heat capacity, c = 4200 J kg-1 C-1
Specific latent heat of fusion, lf = 3.36 x 105 J
kg-1]
2.How much heat must be supplied to 2.0 kg of
water at 28C to change it to steam at 100C?
[Specific heat capacity, c = 4200 J kg-1 C-1
Specific latent heat of vaporisation, lv = 2.26 x
6

-1

50

Homework
1. A 0.25 kg steel ball at 80C is placed on a large block of ice.
Calculate the mass of ice melted by the heat from the steel
ball. [Specific heat capacity of steel = 420 J kg-1 oC-1; Specific
latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 000 J kg-1]
2.

51

2. Figure shows how the temperature of a substance changes

with time when it changes phase from a liquid to solid.
a. What is the melting point of the substance?
b. Explain why the temperature remains constant during
solidification though heat is being released to the
surroundings.
c. The mass of the substance is 0.05 kg and heat is lost to
the surroundings at an average rate of 25 J s-1. Calculate
the specific latent heat of fusion of the substance.
3. An ice cube is taken out of the freezer compartment of a
refrigerator. Explain why the surface of the ice is initially dry but
becomes wet a short while later.

52

4.Calculate the total amount of heat required to

change an ice cube of mass 0.008 kg and
temperature -7 C to steam at 100C.
[Specific heat capacity of ice = 2000 J kg-1
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.36 x
105 J kg-1
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg -1
C-1
Specific latent heat of vaporisation of water =
Answer x 106 J kg-1]
2.26
1. 0.025 kg
2. (a) 59oC
4. 24240 J

(c) 150 000 J kg-1

53

4.4: Understanding the Gas Laws

4.4.1: Properties of Gas

1. For

a gas in enclosed container, the

(a) number of molecules is constant
(b) mass of the gas is constant
(c) behavior of the gas depends on the
volume, temperature and pressure of the
gas

2.

The volume, temperature and pressure of a

gas can be explained using the kinetic theory
of gas.
54

Pressure of gas
1. According

to the kinetic theory of gases, gas

molecules move freely, rapidly and randomly in
the space of container.

2. The

molecules collide with one another and the

container walls. All the collision are elastic.

3. The

pressure of a gas is due to the collision of

the gas molecules with the container walls.

55

Volume of gas
1. The

volume of gas is the space occupied by its

molecules.

2. Therefore,

average distance between the gas

molecules determines its volume.

56

Temperature of gas
1. Gas

molecules are in constant random motion

and have kinetic energy.

2. When

a gas at higher temperature, the gas

molecules move with a greater velocity and
have more kinetic energy.

3. The

temperature of the gas is proportional to

the average kinetic energy of the gas
molecules.

57

4.4.2: Gas Law

Boyles law
1.

Boyles law state that the pressure of the fixed mass

of gas in inversely proportional to the volume of the
gas, provided the temperature of the gas is constant.

2.

From mathematical equation,

1
P
V

or PV = constant, k

58

3.

This means for particular sample of gas at constant

temperature, an increase in pressure from P1 to P2
causes corresponding decrease in volume from V1 to V2.
Therefore;

P1V1 P2V2
4.

The following graph show the Boyles law

P

1
V
59

Example 4.4

1. The air in the foot pump has an initial volume

of 2800 cm3 and pressure 100 kPa. The outlet

of the pump is closed and piston pushed
inward until the volume of the air become 700
cm3. what is the pressure of the compressed is
in the pump?
2. A bubble of air with volume 4 cm3 is released

from a submarine at the depth 50 m. what will

be the volume of the bubble when it has rise
to a depth of 14 m?
[atmospheric pressure = 10 m water]
60

Exercise 4.4

1. An

air bubble released by a diver has a

volume of 6 cm3 at a depth 5 m. what is the
volume of the bubble at a depth of 2 m?

[atmospheric pressure = 10 m water]

2. A

balloon is filled with helium gas to volume

of 30 litres at 1 atm pressure. The balloon is
released and rises to an altitude where its
volume expands to 180 litres. Calculate the
pressure being exerted on the balloon at this
altitude.
61

Charles law
1. Charles

law states that for a fixed mass of an

ideal gas, the volume is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature at constant
pressure.
V T

V 2.=Derivation
kT , whereofk Charless
constant, law
therefore
equation;
V1 V2

T1 T2
62

4.

The following graph shows the Charles law

V

T/K

63

Absolute zero and the Kelvin scale of temperature

1. The

value 273oC is equivalent to 0 K. This

temperature is known as absolute zero
because it is the lowest possible temperature
to be reached.

2. Theoretically,

when the gas reaches this

temperature, the volume and pressure
become zero.

3. Actually

all gas will become liquid before

reaching this temperature.
64

4.

If the absolute zero is taken as origin, the

temperature scale is known as absolute
scale or Kelvin scale.

5.

The temperature in this scale is known as

absolute temperature and the unit is the
kelvin (K).

6.

Relationship between the temperature in the

T = (
+ 273) K
Celsius scale and
Kelvin
scale is as follows:
= (T 273) oC

Where T = absolute temperature in Kelvin (K)

= temperature in degree Celsius (oC)
65

Example 4.4
3.

A gas at 20oC has a volume 21.5 litres. The

temperature is increased to 35oC. What
volume will the gas occupy at this
temperature
Exercise 4.4

3.

Figure shows air trapped inn an empty

container floating on the sea. The volume of
the air is 160 cm3. what is the volume of the
trapped air when the temperature of the
seawater drops from 37.0oC to 16.5oC?

66

Pressure law
1. Pressure

law states that the pressure of an

ideal gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature at constant volume.

P T
2. In short,

P
or constant, k
T

therefore;
P1 P2

T1 T2
67

3.

The following graphs show the Pressure law

/ oC

T/K

68

Example 4.4
4.

The pressure of nitrogen gas in light bulb is

60 kPa at 20oC. Calculate the temperature of
the gas when the pressure inside the bulb
rises to 90 kPa after the bulb is lighted up.
Exercise 4.4

4.

A fixed volume gas has pressure of 0.85 atm

at 20oC. The gas is heated to 85oC. What is
the new pressure?
69

Homework

Answer
3) 213.75 ml

1.

What happen to an air bubble released by a

diver under water slowly approaches the
surface? Explain.

2.

Sketch appropriate graphs that show Boyles

Law.

3.

A sample of air at room temperature has a

volume 90 ml at 95 kPa pressure. If the air
remains at room temperature, what volume
will it occupy if the pressure is changed to 40
kPa?
70

5.

At 1 atm pressure and 25oC, a gas-filled balloon

has a volume of 20 litres. The balloon is cooled
down to 5oC. What would be the volume of
the balloon now, assuming the pressure
remains constant?

6.

Sketch the appropriate graph that shows the

relationship between pressure and
temperature in degree Celsius of a gas at
constant volume.

At 25oC, a sample of gas occupies a container

of constant volume at a pressure of 820 mm
Hg. The gas is heated and the pressure
Answer
5) 17.99 litres
increases
to 1200 mm Hg. What is the new
7) 436.1
K

7.

71