Seventh Edition
CHAPTER
MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf
David F. Mazurek
Stress and Strain
Axial Loading
Lecture Notes:
Brock E. Barry
U.S. Military Academy
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Stress & Strain: Axial Loading
Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in
the structure as well as the stresses induced under loading. Statics
analyses alone are not sufficient.
Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member
forces and reactions which are statically indeterminate .
Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires
consideration of deformations in the member.
Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a structural member under
axial loading. Later chapters will deal with torsional and pure bending
loads.
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Normal Strain
Fig. 2.1 Undeformed
and deformed axially
loaded rod.
Fig. 2.3 Twice the load is
required to obtain the same
deformation when the
cross-sectional area is
doubled.
Fig. 2.4 The deformation is
doubled when the rod length
is doubled while keeping the
load P and cross-sectional
area A.
P
stress
A
normal strain
L
2P P
2A A
A
2
2L L
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Stress-Strain Test
Photo 2.2 Universal test machine used to test
tensile specimens.
Photo 2.3 Elongated tensile test
specimen having load P and deformed
length L > L0.
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
Fig. 2.6 Stress-strain diagrams of two typical ductile materials.
Photo 2.4 Ductile material tested
specimens: (a) with cross-section
necking, (b) ruptured.
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Fig 2.7 Stress-strain diagram for a typical brittle material.
Photo 2.5 Ruptured brittle materials specimen.
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Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity
Below the yield stress
E
E Youngs Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity
Strength is affected by alloying,
heat treating, and manufacturing
process but stiffness (Modulus of
Elasticity) is not.
Fig 2.11 Stress-strain diagrams for iron and
different grades of steel.
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Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
If the strain disappears when the
stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.
The largest stress for which this
occurs is called the elastic limit.
Fig. 2.13 Stress-strain response of ductile
material load beyond yield and unloaded.
When the strain does not return
to zero after the stress is
removed, plastic deformation
of the material has taken place.
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Fatigue
Fatigue properties are shown on
-N diagrams.
A member may fail due to fatigue
at stress levels significantly
below the ultimate strength if
subjected to many loading cycles.
Fig. 2.16 Typical -n curves.
When the stress is reduced below
the endurance limit, fatigue
failures do not occur for any
number of cycles.
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Deformations Under Axial Loading
From Hookes Law:
E AE
From the definition of strain:
L
Equating and solving for the deformation,
PL
AE
Fig. 2.17 Undeformed and
deformed axially-loaded rod.
With variations in loading, cross-section or
material properties,
PL
i i
i Ai Ei
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Concept Application 2.1
SOLUTION:
Divide the rod into components at
the load application points.
E 29 106 psi
Determine the deformation of
the steel rod shown under the
given loads.
Apply a free-body analysis on
each component to determine the
internal force
Evaluate the total of the component
deflections.
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Concept Application 2.1
SOLUTION:
Divide the rod into three
components:
Apply free-body analysis to each
component to determine internal forces,
P1 60 103 lb
P2 15 103 lb
P3 30 103 lb
Evaluate total deflection,
Pi Li 1 P1L1 P2 L2 P3 L3
A
E
E
A
A
A
i i i
1
2
3
60 103 12 15 103 12 30 103 16
6
0
.
9
0
.
9
0
.
3
29 10
L1 L2 12 in.
L3 16 in.
A1 A2 0.9 in 2
A3 0.3 in 2
75.9 103 in.
75.9 103 in.
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Sample Problem 2.1
SOLUTION:
The rigid bar BDE is supported by two
links AB and CD.
Apply a free-body analysis to the bar
BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.
Evaluate the deformation of links
AB and DC or the displacements of
B and D.
Work out the geometry to find the
Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70
deflection at E given the deflections
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500
at B and D.
mm2. Link CD is made of steel (E = 200
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of
(600 mm2).
For the 30-kN force shown, determine the
deflection (a) of B, (b) of D, and (c) of E.
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Sample Problem 2.1
SOLUTION:
Displacement of B:
B
Free body: Bar BDE
PL
AE
60 103 N 0.3 m
500 10-6 m2 70 109 Pa
514 10 6 m
M 0
B
0 30 kN)(0.6 m FCD (0.2 m)
B 0.514 mm
Displacement of D:
FCD 90 kN FCD 90 kN tension
M 0
D
0 30 kN 0.4 m FAB 0.2 m
FAB 60 kN FAB 60 kN compressio n
PL
AE
90 103 N 0.4 m
600 10-6 m2 200 109 Pa
300 10 6 m
D 0.300 mm
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Sample Problem 2.1
Displacement of D:
BB BH
DD HD
0.514 mm 200 mm x
0.300 mm
x
x 73.7 mm
EE HE
DD HD
400 73.7 mm
E
0.300 mm
73.7 mm
E 1.928 mm
E 1.928 mm
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Poissons Ratio
For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:
x x y z 0
E
The elongation in the x-direction is
accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
homogeneous and isotropic (no directional
Fig. 2.29 A bar in uniaxial tension and a
dependence),
representative stress element.
y z 0
Poissons ratio is defined as
lateral strain
y z
axial strain
x
x
Fig. 2.30 Materials undergo transverse
contraction when elongated under axial load.
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Shearing Strain
A cubic element subjected to only shearing stress
will deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding
shearing strain is quantified in terms of the change
in angle between the sides,
xy f xy
Fig. 2.36 Unit cubic element
subjected to shearing stress.
A plot of shearing stress vs. shearing strain is similar
to the previous plots of normal stress vs. normal
strain except that the strength values are
approximately half. For values of shearing strain
that do not exceed the proportional limit,
xy G xy yz G yz zx G zx
Fig. 2.37 Deformation of unit cubic
element due to shearing stress.
where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear
modulus.
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Concept Application 2.10
SOLUTION:
Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.
Fig. 2.41(a) Rectangular block loaded in shear.
A rectangular block of material with
modulus of rigidity G = 90 ksi is
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates.
The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal
force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 0.04 in. under the action
of the force, determine (a) the average
shearing strain in the material, and (b)
the force P exerted on the plate.
Apply Hookes law for shearing stress
and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
Use the definition of shearing stress to
find the force P.
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Concept Application 2.10
Determine the average angular deformation
or shearing strain of the block.
xy tan xy
Fig. 2.41(b) Deformed block showing
the shear strain.
0.04 in.
2 in.
xy 0.020 rad
Apply Hookes law for shearing stress and
strain to find the corresponding shearing
stress.
xy G xy 90 103 psi 0.020 rad 1800 psi
Use the definition of shearing stress to
find the force P.
P xy A 1800 psi 8 in. 2.5 in. 36 103 lb
P 36.0 kips
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Relation Between E, and G
An axially loaded slender bar will
elongate in the x direction and contract in
both of the transverse y and z directions.
An initially cubic element oriented as in
Figure 2.42(a) will deform into a
rectangular parallelepiped. The axial load
produces a normal strain.
If the cubic element is oriented as in
Figure 2.42(b), it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a
shearing strain.
Components of normal and shearing strain
are related,
Fig. 2.42 Representations of strain in an axially
loaded bar: (a) cubicstrain element faces aligned
with coordinate axes; (b) cubicstrain element
faces rotated 45 about z-axis.
E
1
2G
or
E
21
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MECHANICS
MATERIALS
Saint-VenantsOF
Principle
Loads transmitted through rigid plates result in uniform distribution of stress
and strain.
Concentrated loads result in large stresses in the vicinity of the load application
point.
Fig. 2.47 Axial load
applied by rigid plates to
rubber model.
Fig. 2.48 Concentrated
axial load applied to
rubber model.
Fig. 2.49 Stress distributions in a
plate under concentrated axial loads.
Stress and strain distributions
become uniform at a relatively short
distance from the load application
points.
Saint-Venants Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed
independent of the mode of load
application except in the immediate
vicinity of load application points.
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