Python
Henning Schulzrinne
Department of Computer
Science
Columbia University
Feb 15, 2015
(based on tutorial by Guido van
Rossum)
Advanced Programming
Spring 2002
Introduction
Most recent popular
(scripting/extension) language
although origin ~1991
heritage: teaching language (ABC)
Tcl: shell
perl: string (regex) processing
object-oriented
rather than add-on (OOTcl)
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Advanced
Python philosophy
Coherence
not hard to read, write and maintain
power
scope
rapid development + large systems
objects
integration
hybrid systems
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Advanced
Python features
Lutz, Programming Python
no compiling or linking
rapid development cycle
no type declarations
simpler, shorter, more flexible
automatic memory
management
garbage collection
high-level data types and
operations
fast development
object-oriented programming
code structuring and reuse, C+
+
embedding and extending in C
mixed language systems
classes, modules, exceptions
"programming-in-the-large"
support
dynamic loading of C modules
simplified extensions, smaller
binaries
dynamic reloading of C
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modules
programs can be modified
Advanced
without stopping
Python features
Lutz, Programming Python
universal "first-class" object
model
fewer restrictions and rules
run-time program construction
handles unforeseen needs,
end-user coding
interactive, dynamic nature
incremental development and
testing
access to interpreter
information
metaprogramming,
introspective objects
wide portability
cross-platform programming
without ports
compilation to portable bytecode
execution speed, protecting
source code
built-in interfaces to external
services
system tools, GUIs,
persistence, databases, etc.
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Advanced
Python
elements from C++, Modula-3
(modules), ABC, Icon (slicing)
same family as Perl, Tcl, Scheme,
REXX, BASIC dialects
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Advanced
Uses of Python
shell tools
system admin tools, command line programs
extension-language work
rapid prototyping and development
language-based modules
instead of special-purpose parsers
graphical user interfaces
database access
distributed programming
Internet scripting
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Advanced
What not to use Python (and
kin) for
most scripting languages share
these
not as efficient as C
but sometimes better built-in
algorithms (e.g., hashing and sorting)
delayed error notification
lack of profiling tools
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Advanced
Using python
/usr/local/bin/python
#! /usr/bin/env python
interactive use
Python 1.6 (#1, Sep 24 2000, 20:40:45) [GCC 2.95.1 19990816 (release)] on sunos5
Copyright (c) 1995-2000 Corporation for National Research Initiatives.
All Rights Reserved.
Copyright (c) 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam.
All Rights Reserved.
>>>
python c command [arg] ...
python i script
read script first, then interactive
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Advanced
Python structure
modules: Python source files or C
extensions
import, top-level via from, reload
statements
control flow
create objects
indentation matters instead of {}
objects
everything is an object
automatically reclaimed when no longer needed
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Advanced
First example
#!/usr/local/bin/python
# import systems module
import sys
marker = '::::::'
for name in sys.argv[1:]:
input = open(name, 'r')
print marker + name
print input.read()
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Advanced
Basic operations
Assignment:
size = 40
a = b = c = 3
Numbers
integer, float
complex numbers: 1j+3, abs(z)
Strings
'hello world', 'it\'s hot'
"bye world"
continuation via \ or use """ long text """"
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String operations
concatenate with + or neighbors
word = 'Help' + x
word = 'Help' 'a'
subscripting of strings
'Hello'[2] 'l'
slice: 'Hello'[1:2] 'el'
word[-1] last character
len(word) 5
immutable: cannot assign to subscript
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Advanced
Lists
lists can be heterogeneous
a = ['spam', 'eggs', 100, 1234, 2*2]
Lists can be indexed and sliced:
a[0] spam
a[:2] ['spam', 'eggs']
Lists can be manipulated
a[2] =
a[0:2]
a[0:0]
len(a)
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a[2] + 23
= [1,12]
= []
5
Advanced
Basic programming
a,b = 0, 1
# non-zero = true
while b < 10:
# formatted output, without \n
print b,
# multiple assignment
a,b = b, a+b
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Control flow: if
x = int(raw_input("Please enter #:"))
if x < 0:
x = 0
print 'Negative changed to zero'
elif x == 0:
print 'Zero'
elif x == 1:
print 'Single'
else:
print 'More'
no case statement
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Advanced
Control flow: for
a = ['cat', 'window', 'defenestrate']
for x in a:
print x, len(x)
no arithmetic progression, but
range(10) [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
for i in range(len(a)):
print i, a[i]
do not modify the sequence being
iterated over
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Advanced
Loops: break, continue, else
break and continue like C
else after loop exhaustion
for n in range(2,10):
for x in range(2,n):
if n % x == 0:
print n, 'equals', x, '*', n/x
break
else:
# loop fell through without finding a factor
print n, 'is prime'
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Advanced
Do nothing
pass does nothing
syntactic filler
while 1:
pass
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Advanced
Defining functions
def fib(n):
"""Print a Fibonacci series up to n."""
a, b = 0, 1
while b < n:
print b,
a, b = b, a+b
>>> fib(2000)
First line is docstring
first look for variables in local, then global
need global to assign global variables
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Advanced
Functions: default argument
values
def ask_ok(prompt, retries=4,
complaint='Yes or no, please!'):
while 1:
ok = raw_input(prompt)
if ok in ('y', 'ye', 'yes'): return 1
if ok in ('n', 'no'): return 0
retries = retries - 1
if retries < 0: raise IOError,
'refusenik error'
print complaint
>>> ask_ok('Really?')
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Advanced
Keyword arguments
last arguments can be given as
keywords
def parrot(voltage, state='a stiff', action='voom',
type='Norwegian blue'):
print "-- This parrot wouldn't", action,
print "if you put", voltage, "Volts through it."
print "Lovely plumage, the ", type
print "-- It's", state, "!"
parrot(1000)
parrot(action='VOOOM', voltage=100000)
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Advanced
Lambda forms
anonymous functions
may not work in older versions
def make_incrementor(n):
return lambda x: x + n
f = make_incrementor(42)
f(0)
f(1)
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Advanced
List methods
append(x)
extend(L)
append all items in list (like Tcl lappend)
insert(i,x)
remove(x)
pop([i]), pop()
create stack (FIFO), or queue (LIFO) pop(0)
index(x)
return the index for value x
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List methods
count(x)
how many times x appears in list
sort()
sort items in place
reverse()
reverse list
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Functional programming
tools
filter(function, sequence)
def f(x): return x%2 != 0 and x%3 0
filter(f, range(2,25))
map(function, sequence)
call function for each item
return list of return values
reduce(function, sequence)
return a single value
call binary function on the first two items
then on the result and next item
iterate
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Advanced
List comprehensions (2.0)
Create lists without map(),
filter(), lambda
= expression followed by for clause
+ zero or more for or of clauses
>>> vec = [2,4,6]
>>> [3*x for x in vec]
[6, 12, 18]
>>> [{x: x**2} for x in vec}
[{2: 4}, {4: 16}, {6: 36}]
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Advanced
List comprehensions
cross products:
>>> vec1 = [2,4,6]
>>> vec2 = [4,3,-9]
>>> [x*y for x in vec1 for y in vec2]
[8,6,-18, 16,12,-36, 24,18,-54]
>>> [x+y for x in vec1 and y in vec2]
[6,5,-7,8,7,-5,10,9,-3]
>>> [vec1[i]*vec2[i] for i in
range(len(vec1))]
[8,12,-54]
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List comprehensions
can also use if:
>>> [3*x for x in vec if x > 3]
[12, 18]
>>> [3*x for x in vec if x < 2]
[]
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Advanced
del removing list items
remove by index, not value
remove slices from list (rather than by
assigning an empty list)
>>> a = [-1,1,66.6,333,333,1234.5]
>>> del a[0]
>>> a
[1,66.6,333,333,1234.5]
>>> del a[2:4]
>>> a
[1,66.6,1234.5]
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Advanced
Tuples and sequences
lists, strings, tuples: examples of
sequence type
tuple = values separated by
commas
>>> t = 123, 543, 'bar'
>>> t[0]
123
>>> t
(123, 543, 'bar')
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Advanced
Tuples
Tuples may be nested
>>> u = t, (1,2)
>>> u
((123, 542, 'bar'), (1,2))
kind of like structs, but no element
names:
(x,y) coordinates
database records
like strings, immutable can't assign to
individual items
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Tuples
Empty tuples: ()
>>> empty = ()
>>> len(empty)
0
one item trailing comma
>>> singleton = 'foo',
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Tuples
sequence unpacking distribute
elements across variables
>>> t = 123, 543, 'bar'
>>> x, y, z = t
>>> x
123
packing always creates tuple
unpacking works for any sequence
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Advanced
Dictionaries
like Tcl or awk associative arrays
indexed by keys
keys are any immutable type: e.g.,
tuples
but not lists (mutable!)
uses 'key: value' notation
>>> tel = {'hgs' : 7042, 'lennox': 7018}
>>> tel['cs'] = 7000
>>> tel
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Advanced
Dictionaries
no particular order
delete elements with del
>>> del tel['foo']
keys() method unsorted list of keys
>>> tel.keys()
['cs', 'lennox', 'hgs']
use has_key() to check for existence
>>> tel.has_key('foo')
0
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Advanced
Conditions
can check for sequence membership
with is and is not:
>>> if (4 in vec):
... print '4 is'
chained comparisons: a less than b AND
b equals c:
a < b == c
and and or are short-circuit operators:
evaluated from left to right
stop evaluation as soon as outcome clear
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Advanced
Conditions
Can assign comparison to variable:
>>> s1,s2,s3='', 'foo', 'bar'
>>> non_null = s1 or s2 or s3
>>> non_null
foo
Unlike C, no assignment within
expression
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Advanced
Comparing sequences
unlike C, can compare sequences
(lists, tuples, ...)
lexicographical comparison:
compare first; if different outcome
continue recursively
subsequences are smaller
strings use ASCII comparison
can compare objects of different type,
but by type name (list < string < tuple)
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Advanced
Comparing sequences
(1,2,3) < (1,2,4)
[1,2,3] < [1,2,4]
'ABC' < 'C' < 'Pascal' < 'Python'
(1,2,3) == (1.0,2.0,3.0)
(1,2) < (1,2,-1)
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Advanced
Modules
collection of functions and variables,
typically in scripts
definitions can be imported
file name is module name + .py
e.g., create module fibo.py
def fib(n): # write Fib. series up to n
...
def fib2(n): # return Fib. series up to n
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Advanced
Modules
import module:
import fibo
Use modules via "name space":
>>> fibo.fib(1000)
>>> fibo.__name__
'fibo'
can give it a local name:
>>> fib = fibo.fib
>>> fib(500)
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Advanced
Modules
function definition + executable
statements
executed only when module is imported
modules have private symbol tables
avoids name clash for global variables
accessible as module.globalname
can import into name space:
>>> from fibo import fib, fib2
>>> fib(500)
can import all names defined by module:
>>> from fibo import *
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Advanced
Module search path
current directory
list of directories specified in PYTHONPATH
environment variable
uses installation-default if not defined, e.g.,
.:/usr/local/lib/python
uses sys.path
>>> import sys
>>> sys.path
['', 'C:\\PROGRA~1\\Python2.2', 'C:\\Program
Files\\Python2.2\\DLLs', 'C:\\Program
Files\\Python2.2\\lib', 'C:\\Program
Files\\Python2.2\\lib\\lib-tk', 'C:\\Program
Files\\Python2.2', 'C:\\Program Files\\Python2.2\\lib\\sitepackages']
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Advanced
Compiled Python files
include byte-compiled version of module
if there exists fibo.pyc in same directory
as fibo.py
only if creation time of fibo.pyc matches
fibo.py
automatically write compiled file, if
possible
platform independent
doesn't run any faster, but loads faster
can have only .pyc file hide source
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Standard modules
system-dependent list
always sys module
>>> import sys
>>> sys.p1
'>>> '
>>> sys.p2
'... '
>>> sys.path.append('/some/directory')
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Module listing
use dir() for each module
>>> dir(fibo)
['___name___', 'fib', 'fib2']
>>> dir(sys)
['__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__', '__name__', '__stderr__', '__st
din__', '__stdout__', '_getframe', 'argv', 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder',
'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dllhandle', 'exc_info', 'exc_type', 'excepthook', '
exec_prefix', 'executable', 'exit', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getrecursionlimit', '
getrefcount', 'hexversion', 'last_type', 'last_value', 'maxint', 'maxunicode', '
modules', 'path', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1', 'ps2', 'setcheckinterval', 'setpr
ofile', 'setrecursionlimit', 'settrace', 'stderr', 'stdin', 'stdout', 'version',
'version_info', 'warnoptions', 'winver']
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Advanced
Classes
mixture of C++ and Modula-3
multiple base classes
derived class can override any methods of
its base class(es)
method can call the method of a base
class with the same name
objects have private data
C++ terms:
all class members are public
all member functions are virtual
no constructors or destructors (not needed)
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Classes
classes (and data types) are
objects
built-in types cannot be used as
base classes by user
arithmetic operators, subscripting
can be redefined for class
instances (like C++, unlike Java)
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Class definitions
Class ClassName:
<statement-1>
...
<statement-N>
must be executed
can be executed conditionally (see
Tcl)
creates new namespace
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Advanced
Namespaces
mapping from name to object:
built-in names (abs())
global names in module
local names in function invocation
attributes = any following a dot
z.real, z.imag
attributes read-only or writable
module attributes are writeable
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Advanced
Namespaces
scope = textual region of Python program
where a namespace is directly accessible
(without dot)
innermost scope (first) = local names
middle scope = current module's global names
outermost scope (last) = built-in names
assignments always affect innermost scope
don't copy, just create name bindings to objects
global indicates name is in global scope
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Advanced
Class objects
obj.name references (plus module!):
class MyClass:
"A simple example class"
i = 123
def f(self):
return 'hello world'
>>> MyClass.i
123
MyClass.f is method object
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Advanced
Class objects
class instantiation:
>>> x = MyClass()
>>> x.f()
'hello world'
creates new instance of class
note x = MyClass vs. x = MyClass()
___init__() special method for
initialization of object
def __init__(self,realpart,imagpart):
self.r = realpart
self.i = imagpart
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Advanced
Instance objects
attribute references
data attributes (C++/Java data
members)
created dynamically
x.counter = 1
while x.counter < 10:
x.counter = x.counter * 2
print x.counter
del x.counter
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Advanced
Method objects
Called immediately:
x.f()
can be referenced:
xf = x.f
while 1:
print xf()
object is passed as first argument
of function 'self'
x.f() is equivalent to MyClass.f(x)
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Advanced
Notes on classes
Data attributes override method
attributes with the same name
no real hiding not usable to
implement pure abstract data types
clients (users) of an object can add
data attributes
first argument of method usually
called self
'self' has no special meaning (cf. Java)
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Advanced
Another example
bag.py
class Bag:
def __init__(self):
self.data = []
def add(self, x):
self.data.append(x)
def addtwice(self,x):
self.add(x)
self.add(x)
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Advanced
Another example, cont'd.
invoke:
>>> from bag import *
>>> l = Bag()
>>> l.add('first')
>>> l.add('second')
>>> l.data
['first', 'second']
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Inheritance
class DerivedClassName(BaseClassName)
<statement-1>
...
<statement-N>
search class attribute, descending
chain of base classes
may override methods in the base
class
call directly via BaseClassName.method
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Advanced
Multiple inheritance
class DerivedClass(Base1,Base2,Base3):
<statement>
depth-first, left-to-right
problem: class derived from two
classes with a common base class
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Advanced
Private variables
No real support, but textual
replacement (name mangling)
__var is replaced by
_classname_var
prevents only accidental
modification, not true protection
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Advanced
~ C structs
Empty class definition:
class Employee:
pass
john = Employee()
john.name = 'John Doe'
john.dept = 'CS'
john.salary = 1000
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Exceptions
syntax (parsing) errors
while 1 print 'Hello World'
File "<stdin>", line 1
while 1 print 'Hello World'
^
SyntaxError:
invalid syntax
exceptions
run-time errors
e.g., ZeroDivisionError,
NameError, TypeError
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Handling exceptions
while 1:
try:
x = int(raw_input("Please enter a number: "))
break
except ValueError:
print "Not a valid number"
First, execute try clause
if no exception, skip except clause
if exception, skip rest of try clause and use
except clause
if no matching exception, attempt outer try
statement
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Handling exceptions
try.py
import sys
for arg in sys.argv[1:]:
try:
f = open(arg, 'r')
except IOError:
print 'cannot open', arg
else:
print arg, 'lines:', len(f.readlines())
f.close
e.g., as python try.py *.py
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Advanced
Language comparison
Tcl
Perl
Python JavaScrip Visual
t
Basic
development
regexp
extensible
embeddable
easy GUI
(Tk)
net/web
enterpris cross-platform
e
I18N
thread-safe
Speed
breadth
database access
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Advanced
