Integrated Pest Management(IPM) practices help
grower to properly identify pests, verify pest density, and
recognize damage symptoms, natural enemies and diseases.
Most importantly it will allow growers to make spraying
decisions based on pest activity in the field. This, in turn, will
reduce production costs and ultimately increase farm
income. Additionally, it will help growers to comply with
federal guidelines on good agricultural practices (GAPs),
which will provide a safer food supply to consumers.
INTRODUCTION
Imported cabbageworm (ICW), diamondback
moth (DBM) and cabbage looper (CL) are the
key insect pests attacking cabbage, collard and
other cole crops.
Additionally, a diverse complex of other pests
attacks these crops. Because of the devastating
effects the key pests can have feeding on these
crops, growers rely entirely on chemicals to
control them. Currently, some growers spray
their crop on a weekly basis, regardless of crop
damage and pest densities. This practice is
mainly driven by market demands for a
blemishfree crop and the growers desire to
meet this demand. Insect resistance problems,
human health hazards, harmful effects on
natural enemies, honey bees and the
environment can result from this practice.
OBJECTIVE of PEST CONTROL
* The objective of any pest control strategy is to reduce pest
populations to non-economic levels.
* The adoption of IPM practices should lead growers
towards a pest management strategy that is a balance
between biological, cultural and environmentally safe
chemical control rather than the current system that relies
entirely on pesticides.
The key to a successful IPM program is
to sample fields frequently, identify
harmful pests and beneficial insects,
and make spraying decisions based on
what is in the field rather than what
the farmer thinks might be there.
Cabbage Aphid
Life
cycle: Aphids multiply in the
field very rapidly. A generation may
develop within a week to 10 days.
However, the cabbage aphid is not
nearly as destructive as the
caterpillars that attack brassica
plants.
Damage symptoms: Aphids are most
often found in colonies. Sometimes
the colonies may reach high
numbers. Feeding is by sucking
mouthparts and severe infestations
can cause the leaves to become
discolored and puckered.
Status as pest: In general,
aphids are normally considered
a minor pest of cabbage and
collards
but
in
certain
circumstances, their numbers
can explode.
Other remarks: Some ants
may farm aphids thereby
protecting them from some
natural
enemies.
Aphid
populations are usually kept low
by the action of natural
enemies, especially predators
such as ladybeetles, syrphid fly
larvae and parasitoids.
Cabbage aphids often have a
waxy appearance.
Cross-striped Cabbageworm
Life cycle: Pale yellow eggs are laid in flat rafts underneath
leaves. These hatch in 5 or so days depending upon temperature.
The small larvae hatch together and molt into 4 or 5 instars then
form pupae. Larvae are distinctive with many transverse black
and white stripes along their body and yellow and black stripes
along the length of the body. Adults are about an inch long with
brownish grey forewings. Because they fly at night, they are not
often seen.
Damage symptoms: This pest
prefers the young, tender terminals of
cabbage and collard plants. Because
several larvae hatch from the egg
mass and feed together, plants can
become riddled with holes.
Status as pest: This is only an
occasional pest throughout its range.
Other remarks: This pest has
several important natural enemies
such as parasitoids of the eggs and
larvae. It is usually not difficult to
control if field scouting detects it
early.
Imported Cabbageworm
Life Cycle: Adults deposit single eggs that
hatch in 3 4 days, depending on temperature.
Larvae undergo 5 developmental stages and
pupate on the plant. Mature larvae can reach a
length of over an inch.
Other remarks: There are a number of
natural enemies such as parasitoids, predators
and some diseases that attack this pest. The pest
is very easily controlled with Bacillus
thuringiensis (B.t.).
Damage symptoms: Larval feeding
on leaves of crucifers can cause serious
damage.
Status as pest: The species is widely
distributed
and,
depending
upon
location, can be very important.
Interestingly, in some areas where
crucifers are grown, it is not a serious pest.
Cabbage Looper
Status as pest: Cabbage loopers are
one of three major foliage-feeding
caterpillars in cabbage and collard. The
other two are imported cabbageworm
and diamondback moth.
Life cycle: Eggs are laid singly on
leaves. The egg stage lasts from 3 4
days. There are 5 larval instars lasting
about 13 days. Full grown larvae are
about 1.5 inches long.
Damage symptoms: Larvae feed
extensively on leaves and can cause
serious defoliation.
Other remarks: This pest has several
natural enemies (predators, parasitoids
and insect diseases) that attack it. Careful
and frequent(two times per week) field
scouting is required to detect young
larvae before extensive damage occurs
by larger larvae.
Salt-marsh Caterpillar
Life cycle:
The eggs are laid in groups of from 400 1000 and
hatch in 4 5 days. The hairy larvae go through from
to 7 stages before pupating among leaf debris on
the soil. The pupal stage lasts about 2 weeks. Adult
moths are whitish in color with numerous small black
spots. The adults live only a few days.
Other remarks:
Salt-marsh caterpillar larvae are attacked by a number
of natural enemies, particularly parasitoids. There is
also a virus disease that attacks the larvae. In addition,
many generalist predators attack the eggs and larvae.
Damage symptoms: The larvae can occasionally cause
serious defoliation. Young larvae skeletonize the leaves,
and larger ones eat large holes in the leaves.
Status as pest: This caterpillar can cause some
defoliation and can be locally important. It is not usually a
serious pest. Because it raises concerns with growers,
however, it is important to know that it is present.
Diamondback Moth
Life Cycle:
Development depends upon
temperature. In warmer climates,
the life cycle may be half of that
in cooler areas. Eggs are laid
singly on the lower surface of the
leaves. In cooler areas, the egg
stage may last up to 6 days. There
are 4 larval instars which
complete their development in
about 14 days.
The full-grown caterpillar is
about -inch long. Pupation
occurs on the undersides of
leaves inside a silken cocoon. The
adult moth emerges after about 7
days.
Damage symptoms: Caterpillars
feeding on leaves can cause severe
damage. The younger caterpillars
often cause a window pane effect.
Status as pest: It is a most
serious pest in areas where heavy
chemical insecticides are used. In
many
areas,
natural
enemies,
particularly
parasitic
wasps,
Diadegma sp., control the pest.
Other remarks: In all areas where
the diamondback moth is a very
serious problem, it has acquired
resistance to a wide range of
insecticides. It is recommended that
farmers understand the role of
natural enemies in controlling the
pest.
Vegetable Weevil
Life cycle: Vegetable weevils are most
active during warmer times of the year but
during the hottest periods, adult weevils
may go into a resting stage or aestivation.
Eggs hatch in about two weeks and larvae
feed from 25 45 days, depending upon
temperature. Larvae pupate in the soil and
the pupal stage may last two to three
weeks, depending upon temperature.
Adults (1/4 to 1/3 inch long) have been
known to live for up to two years and
reproduce without mating.
Damage symptoms:
Feeding occurs mostly at night. Damage
occurs on buds, foliage, stems and roots.
Larvae are the most likely stages to be
found feeding on the developing buds or
crown of the plants. Even a small amount
of feeding can cause plants to be deformed
as they develop. Leaves are skeletonized
when high populations occur.
Status as pest: Both adults and larvae
damage plants .The most serious damage
comes from larval feeding in the crown of
plants.
Other remarks: Adults are brown with
a pale gray v-shaped mark on the wing
covers. When disturbed, adults will
pretend to be dead. Larvae are legless and
are pale yellow or greenish yellow.
Harlequin bug
Adults are orange or red and
black spotted and easily
recognized in the field.
Life cycle: The harlequin bug
requires from 50 80 days to complete
its development. Black and white barrelshaped eggs are laid in double rows of
about 12 eggs, usually on the undersides
of leaves. Eggs hatch from 5 25 days,
varying with temperature. There are
usually 5 nymphal stages that feed and
grow from 4 9 weeks before becoming
adults that can mate and reproduce.
Damage symptoms: Feeding
damage shows up as white areas
where the sucking mouthparts have
removed plant juices. Heavy
damage can cause losses of entire
leaves or plants.
Status as pest: Harlequin bugs,
although
widely
distributed
throughout the United States, are
only important in local situations
and their infestations are spotty.
Other remarks: The adult stage survives the winter. There are tiny
wasp parasitoids that attack the eggs as do predators such as crickets,
fire ants and others.
Cabbage Webworm
Life Cycle: Eggs are
laid on leaves. Larvae
can be recognized by
several brown stripes
along
their
body.
Larvae feed inside the
cabbage heart under
protective silk. Larvae
pupate in the soil. Life
cycle takes from 23 25
days.
Damage
Symptoms:
Feeding is concentrated in the
center or heart of the cabbage.
Only a small amount of feeding
can cause the plant to be
deformed and unmarketable.
Status as Pest: This is a
highly destructive pest, but its
populations are not nearly as
large as other caterpillars.
Other Comments: Larvae are
more difficult to kill by B.t. or
other insecticides because they
are protected by a silken web
within the cabbage heart.
Southern green stink bug
Life cycle: The white to pale-yellow eggs are laid in rafts glued together on
the undersurfaces of leaves. The incubation time for eggs in the summer is
about 5 days but may take two or three weeks in early spring when the weather
is cooler. Eggs turn pinkish orange when nymphs are about to hatch. The first
instars aggregate on the empty eggs and do not feed. The first nymphal stage
lasts about 3 days. Feeding begins with the second instar. This stage lasts about
5 days, and the third and fourth instars last about 7 days each. The fifth instar
takes about 8 days before molting to the adult stage. Female adults are capable
of laying over 260 eggs over their life spans.
Damage symptoms: This pest has
piercing-sucking mouthparts which suck
the plant sap causing whitish patches on
leaves, much like the harlequin bug.
Status as pest: Sucking bugs, in
general, are not nearly as important as the
caterpillar complex. However, localized
populations can build and cause
considerable damage. Good field scouting
is essential to detect this pest and to take
appropriate action.
Other remarks: Two major natural
enemies of the Southern green stink bug
are a small parasitic wasp, (Trissolcus
basalis) (page 16) that attack and kill the
eggs, and a larger, orange and black
feather-legged fly (page 15) that lays its
eggs on the adult stink bug. These eggs
hatch into small larvae that bore into the
bug and eventually kill it.
Black Rot
This bacterial disease can be carried
on seed, come from crop residue in
the field, or come from weeds in or
near the field. Warm, rainy weather
favors this disease, and, under rainy,
windy conditions like thunderstorms
or hurricanes, it can be spread to
almost every plant.
Signs and symptoms:
It causes large V-shaped spots on the
edges of the leaves. These spots have a
yellow margin, and the veins in the
spots are black. They will run
together when the disease is severe
causing the whole leaf to be blighted.
Cabbage
can
escape
damage
sometimes, because the disease is
mainly on the outer leaves.
Downy Mildew
This fungus disease is favored by cool
temperatures and rainy or foggy
weather. It is mainly a problem in the
early spring and late fall when the
temperatures are ideal. It can be
worse on heavily fertilized crops and
in wet or shady areas of the field.
Signs and symptoms:
It causes yellowish spots on the upper
sides of leaves with a blackish
netted area under these spots.
During wet periods or early in the
morning, a whitish mold can be
seen on the spots on the bottoms of
the leaves.
Fusarium WiltThis
is a disease caused by a
fungus that lives in the soil. It is
often called yellows.
Signs and symptoms:
It causes the plants to become
yellow and stunted, sometimes on
only one side. It also may cause
the leaf mid-veins to be very
curved giving the leaves a
crooked appearance. It is a hotweather disease and is usually
only found in the summer
months in fields that have a long
history of cabbage or collard
production. If it is severe, the
plants are too stunted or yellowed
to be marketable.
Damping-off/Wirestem
This disease will reduce stand (dampingoff) or cause stunted plants (wirestem).
Although damping-off can be caused by
several fungi, the most common cause of
damping-off also causes wirestem. During
cool, wet weather in the spring, emerging
seedlings or small transplants can be
killed by damping-off fungi. Wirestem is
not common in the cooler months of
spring. In late summer and fall when the
weather is warm, damping-off can also
kill emerging seedlings, although the
fungus causing the problem is usually
different from the spring.mAt this time of
the year, transplants can also be affected.
They may recover leaving a thin, wire-like
portion of the lower stem from which the
disease gets its name. The plants usually
remain stunted and are unmarketable.
Alternaria Leaf Spot
This is a warm season fungus
disease. Like most fungus
diseases, it is favored by wet
weather. Crowding the plants or
having a lot of weed growth
which reduces air circulation can
make this disease worse. It is
often seen on mature plants in
the spring crop and can be found
on both young transplants and
mature plants in the fall crop.
Signs and symptoms:
It causes large, grayish-black
spots on the leaves often down
near the stem. The spots will
have rings in them like targets.
feather-legged fly
It lay eggs on
stink bugs, and
the developing
fly
larvae
devour
the
insides of the
insect pest.
Damsel bugs and big-eyed
bugs
TREE CRICKET
EARWIG
JUMPING SPIDER
GREEN LYNX
SPIDER
LADY BEETLE
FIRE ANTS
Control and Pest
Management of the Insect
Pests of Cabbage
Chemical Control
The most commonly used insecticides on Other insecticidal materials recently
cabbage are Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.)
registered for use in cabbage include
and spinosad. In fact, B.t. was the only
thiamethoxam,
esfenvalerate,
insecticide with published use values for
acetamiprid,
beta-cyfluthrin,
cabbage. Older insecticidal materials used
clothianidin, flonicamid, pheromones,
for cabbage were bifenthrin, carbaryl,
tebufenozide,
chlorantraniliprole,
chlorpyrifos,
dimethoate,
emamectin
buprofezin,
gamma-cyhalothrin,
benzoate,
endosulfan,
esfenvalerate,
potassium
salts
of
fatty
acids,
imidacloprid,
indoxacarb,
lambdapyriproxyfen, piperonyl butoxide, scyhalothrin, malathion, methoxyfenozide,
methoprene, spirotetramat, cyfuthrin,
methomyl,
permethrin,
thiodicarb,
spiromesifen, sodium tetraborohydrate
tebufenozide, azadirachtin, azinphosdecahydrate,
emamectin
benzoate,
methyl, Beauveria bassiana, cypermethrin
(beta or zeta), diazinon, disulfoton,
spinetoram, novaluron, dinotefuran,
fenpropathrin,
insecticidal
soaps,
kaolin,
flubendiamide,
cyromazine,
insecticidal oils, naled, oxydemetonflubendiamide, extract of Chenopodium
methyl, polyhedrosis viruses for corn
ambrosioides,
Paecilomyces
sp.,
earworm
and
beet
armyworm,
and Chromobacterium subtsugae .
pymetrozine, pyrethrins, and sulfur.
Bacillus thuringiensis
The biopesticide Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) is the most
important insect management tool for cabbage growers.
Cabbage growers use B.t. every year to manage
diamondback moth and other lepidopteran larvae. A
naturally occurring soil bacterium, B.t.produces spores and
crystalline bodies that act as stomach poison to the insects
that consume it. The most common formulations are highly
specific for lepidopterous larvae (caterpillars) and do not
harm beneficial organisms. However, it is most effective
against smaller larvae. B.t. may be applied up to the day of
harvest, meaning the pre-harvest interval (PHI) is 0 days,
and the restricted-entry interval (REI) under the Worker
Protection Standard is 4 hours.
Spinosad
Spinosad is a reduced risk broad-spectrum insecticide derived from fermentation of the
naturally occurring soil bacteriumSaccharopolyspora spinosa. Since its registration, spinosad has
become one of the most important insecticides for cabbage growers (Eger and Lindenberg
1998). It controls many lepidopterous larvae, dipteran leafminers, and thrips. It is used by
cabbage growers primarily to manage diamondback moth and cabbage looper but also to
control imported cabbageworm and armyworm. Spinosad has low activity against most
beneficial insects and is useful in integrated pest management (IPM) programs. Spinosad may
be applied up to 1 day before harvest (PHI=1 day), and the restricted entry interval (REI) under
the Worker Protection Standard is 4 hours. For purposes of resistance management, a
maximum of six diamondback moth treatments may be made per year (since this is a lower rate
than the maximum of 0.16 lb ai/A). Additionally, no more than three consecutive treatments
may be made in a 30-day period, followed by a 30-day period free of spinosad. The maximum
amount that can be used per crop is 0.45 lb ai/A (CDMS 2013).
Use
of Insecticides
Programs
in
Resistance
Management
Insecticide resistance in the control of cabbage insects .
Diamondback moth is an agricultural pest that has demonstrated
the ability to quickly become resistant to insecticides. From the
1940s through the 1970s, growers applied DDT, toxaphene,
parathion, methoxychlor, mevinphos, endosulfan, naled,
methomyl, and methamidophos to cabbage for control of
multiple cabbage caterpillars.
Cabbage looper resistance to DDT, parathion, and toxaphene was
documented in 1957, and populations resistant to methomyl were
found in the early 1980s. When the pyrethroids became available
in the early 1980s, growers switched to permethrin and
fenvalerate to control cabbage looper and diamondback moth,
which became more difficult to control with the earlier
insecticides.
Cultural Control
Mating disruption with sex pheromones was effective in
reducing diamondback moth and cabbage looper populations in
cabbage. In field trials, treating cabbage fields with sex
pheromones controlled diamondback moth populations for most
of the cabbage season, minimizing the need for pesticide sprays.,
The use of trap crops has also been investigated to manage
diamondback moth in cabbage. A trap crop is a plant more
attractive to the insect pest that lures it away from the more
valuable crop.
Another cultural control for cabbage looper moths is the use of
row covers, which can prevent cabbage looper moths from laying
their eggs on the plants. However, using row covers is not always
economically feasible (Capinera 2011b). Cutworm damage can be
reduced by plowing under weeds at least one month prior to
planting (Hayslip et al. 1953).
Biological Control
cabbage growers depend on the microbial insecticide Bacillus
thuringiensis to manage diamondback moth and cabbage
looper, among other caterpillar pests. Several other natural
control agents help reduce pest population densities in
cabbage.
Other natural mortality agents of cabbage looper include
tachinid parasitoids such as Voria ruralis, which attacks
medium or large larvae,
wasp parasitoids such
as Trichogramma spp., which parasitize looper eggs, and
predators such as the earwig Labidura riparia, Bird predation of
cabbage looper has also been observed in fields .
The parasitic wasp Cotesia plutellae was imported and released
in 1990. Diamondback moth populations also suffer a high
parasitism rate by Trichogramma sp. and are affected by
several pathogens, including Zoophthora spp. (Leibee 1996).
Additional natural enemies of cabbage pests include the
parasites Meteorus vulgaris,
Chemical Control
In 2010, growers applied fungicides totaling 70,600 pounds
of active ingredient to 99% of the states cabbage acreage.
The most commonly used fungicide on cabbage was
chlorothalonil with total usage of 65,600 pounds. Older
fungicidal materials registered for use in cabbage are copper
compounds, azoxystrobin, Bacillus sp., hydrogen dioxide,
mefenoxam, and sulfur;
Other recently registered fungicidal materials are
acibenzolar-s-methyl, metalaxyl, potassium phosphite,
potassium bicarbonate, potassium phosphate, potassium
silicate, pyraclostrobin, mancozeb, boscalid, penthiopyrad,
dimethomorph,
chloropicin,
1,3-dichloropropene,
cyprodinil, fludioxonil, fluazinam, fluopicolide, triflumizole,
cyazofamid, fenamidone, mandipropamid, metalaxyl,
thiram, laminarin, Streptomyces lydicus, Glicoladium
virens, Trichoderma sp., and oils (neem, clove, rosemary, and
thyme)
Diseases
management
Chlorothalonil
Chlorothalonil is a broad-spectrum chloronitrile fungicide
used to manage Alternaria leaf spot and downy mildew
,Chlorothalonil may be applied up to 7 days before harvest
(PHI=7 days), and the restricted entry interval (REI) under the
Worker Protection Standard is 12 hours. The minimum
retreatment period is seven days, and the seasonal maximum
application is 12 lb ai/A.
In 2010, growers applied an average of 0.9 pounds of active
ingredient per acre at each application to 99% of cabbage
acreage, an average of 6.7 times. Total usage was 65,500
pounds of active ingredient.
During the years usage data was collected, cabbage growers
applied chlorothalonil at an average rate of 0.801.42 pounds
of active ingredient per acre at each application to 39%94%
of cabbage acreage. Growers have made an average number of
applications ranging from 4.6 to 5.7 each year, totaling 22,700
56,300 pounds of active ingredient annually).
Copper Hydroxide
Florida cabbage growers use copper hydroxide to
manage black rot, Alternaria leaf spot, and downy
mildew. The restricted entry interval (REI) of
copper hydroxide under the Worker Protection
Standard is 24 hours,
Cultural Control
Black rot can be spread by infected seeds or during
transplant production. Although resistant varieties
are available, the most effective management is
adequate sanitation while producing transplants.
Cabbage growers can buy certified transplants as well
as seeds that have been certified as being free of black
rot. Regardless of the source of cabbage seeds, using
the hot water treatment is an essential management
tactic that effectively controls black rot; the hot water
treatment is soaking the seeds at 122F (50C) for 30
35 minutes.
Specific practices during transplant production include the use of clean
flats and disease-free seed, destruction of diseased plants and residue
after the harvest, avoiding the movement of contaminated soil,
fumigation, or rotation of transplant beds, irrigation from a well and not
from an open ditch, elimination of cruciferous weeds, raising transplant
beds for adequate drainage, avoiding handling of plants while wet, and
avoiding placing transplant beds within one-quarter mile of crucifer
production fields. In addition, transplants should not be wetted down
before transplanting, since black rot spreads most easily under moist
conditions.
While the use of clean planting material is the key cultural control for
black rot, most growers also stay out of the fields as much as possible
during wet conditions to avoid spreading the disease. Additional cultural
practices that should be followed together include planting in fields that
have not been in crucifer production for 12 months, plowing down
crucifer fields just after harvest, and thoroughly cleaning all equipment
and tools prior to use in the field or transplant bed.
The best cultural control for sclerotinose, as well as most other
diseases, is wider plant and row spacing, which cut down on long dew
periods. However, to maximize yield, most growers do not increase
spacing as a disease management practice. Additional
recommendations for cultural control of sclerotinose include rotating
with a crop that is not susceptible to Sclerotinia (e.g., sweet corn),
turning the soil at least six inches when plowing, avoiding the use of
overhead irrigation, and completely flooding or intermittently
flooding for six weeks during the summer, if possible (Momol, Raid,
and Kucharek 2005).
Destruction or burial of old plant beds and residues in harvested
fields aids in managing Alternaria leaf spot and downy mildew.
Elimination of cruciferous crops and weeds around seedbeds, rotation
with non-cruciferous crops, and the use of disease-free seeds and
transplants also aid in managing those diseases. Turnip mosaic can be
managed by eliminating the weed hosts of the virus, particularly
mustard-type weeds, both in the seedbed and field.
Early control of aphids, especially in seedbeds, is
the other key to reducing virus incidence.
Cultural controls for wirestem include rotating
crops on both seedbeds and fields, providing
adequate drainage, cultivating as soon as
possible after heavy rains to aerate and dry the
soil, and avoiding planting in crop debris or a
green manure crop that has recently been
incorporated.
For
yellows,
disease-free
transplants should be used, and the only
available control once soil has been infested is
using resistant varieties,
