Digital Communication

Communication System
Voice,
Video,
data

Source of Destination
Information Information

Transmitted Received
Signal Signal
Transmitter Channel Receiver

Communication System
Data Communication Terms
 Data - entities that convey meaning, or
information
 Signals - electric or electromagnetic
representations of data
 Transmission - communication of data by
the propagation and processing of signals
Examples of Analog and Digital
Data
 Analog
 Video
 Audio
 Digital
 Text
 Integers
Analog Signal
Digital Signal
Analog Signals
 A continuously varying electromagnetic wave that
may be propagated over a variety of media,
depending on frequency
 Examples of media:
 Copper wire media (twisted pair and coaxial cable)
 Fiber optic cable
 Atmosphere or space propagation
 Analog signals can propagate analog and digital
data
Digital Signals
 A sequence of voltage pulses that may be
transmitted over a copper wire medium
 Generally cheaper than analog signaling
 Less susceptible to noise interference
 Suffer more from attenuation
 Digital signals can propagate analog and
digital data
Analog Signaling
Digital Signaling
Time-Domain Concepts
 Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth
fashion over time
 No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
 Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a
constant level for some period of time and then
changes to another constant level
 Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern
that repeats over time
 s(t +T ) = s(t )
 where T is the period of the signal
Time-Domain Concepts
 Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern
that doesn't repeat over time
 Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or strength
of the signal over time; typically measured in volts
 Frequency (f )
 Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at

which the signal repeats

Time-Domain Concepts
 Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one
repetition of the signal
 T = 1/f
 Phase () - measure of the relative position in time
within a single period of a signal
 Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single
cycle of the signal
 Or, the distance between two points of corresponding
phase of two consecutive cycles
Sine Wave Parameters
 General sine wave
 s(t ) = A sin(2ft + )
 Figure shows the effect of varying each of the
three parameters
 (a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz,  = 0; thus T = 1s
 (b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
 (c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½
 (d) Phase shift;  = /4 radians (45 degrees)
 note: 2 radians = 360° = 1 period
Sine Wave Parameters
Frequency-Domain Concepts
 Fundamental frequency - when all frequency
components of a signal are integer multiples of
one frequency, it’s referred to as the fundamental
frequency
 Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal
contains
 Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a
signal
 Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow
band of frequencies that most of the signal’s
energy is contained in
Frequency-Domain Concepts
 Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to
consist of a collection of periodic analog
signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes,
frequencies, and phases
 The period of the total signal is equal to the
period of the fundamental frequency
 Relationship between Data Rate
and Bandwidth
 The greater the bandwidth, the higher the
information-carrying capacity
 Conclusions
 Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
 BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth
that can be transmitted
 AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth
transmitted, the greater the cost
 HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions
Reasons for Choosing Data and
Signal Combinations
 Digital data, digital signal
 Equipment for encoding is less expensive than digital-
to-analog equipment
 Analog data, digital signal
 Conversion permits use of modern digital transmission
and switching equipment
 Digital data, analog signal
 Some transmission media will only propagate analog
signals
 Examples include optical fiber and satellite
 Analog data, analog signal
 Analog data easily converted to analog signal
Analog Transmission
 Transmit analog signals without regard to
content
 Attenuation limits length of transmission
link
 Cascaded amplifiers boost signal’s energy
for longer distances but cause distortion
 Analog data can tolerate distortion
 Introduces errors in digital data
Digital Transmission
 Concerned with the content of the signal
 Attenuation endangers integrity of data
 Digital Signal
 Repeaters achieve greater distance
 Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
 Analog signal carrying digital data
 Retransmission device recovers the digital data from
analog signal
 Generates new, clean analog signal
About Channel Capacity
 Impairments such as noise, limit the data
rates that can be achieved.
 For digital data, to what extent do
impairments limit data rate?
 Channel Capacity – the maximum rate at
which data can be transmitted over a given
communication path, or channel, under
given conditions
 Concepts Related to Channel
Capacity
 Data rate - rate at which data can be
communicated (bps)
 Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal as constrained by the transmitter and the
nature of the transmission medium (Hertz)
 Noise - average level of noise over the
communications path
 Error rate - Rate at which errors occur
 Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive
1
Nyquist Bandwidth
 For binary signals (two voltage levels)
 C = 2B
 With multilevel signaling
 C = 2B log2 M
 M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
 Ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise that’s present at a particular
point in the transmission
 Typically measured at a receiver
 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)
signal power
( SNR) dB  10 log10
noise power
 A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low
number of required intermediate repeaters
 SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate
Shannon Capacity Formula
 Equation:
C  B log 2 1  SNR 
 Represents theoretical maximum that can be
achieved
 In practice, only much lower rates achieved
 Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
 Impulse noise is not accounted for
 Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not accounted
for
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
 Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and
4 MHz ; SNRdB = 24 dB
B  4 MHz  3 MHz  1 MHz
SNR dB  24 dB  10 log10  SNR 
SNR  251
 Using Shannon’s formula

C  10  log 2 1  251  10  8  8Mbps

6 6
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
 How many signaling levels are required?

C  2 B log 2 M
6
 
8  10  2  10  log 2 M
6

4  log 2 M
M  16
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Communication Channels

• Wire line Channels (Copper)

• Microwave Radio
• Satellite communication
• Optical Fibre
Electromagnetic Signal
 Function of time
 Can also be expressed as a function of
frequency
 Signal consists of components of different
frequencies
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Classifications of Transmission
Media
 Transmission Medium
 Physical path between transmitter and receiver
 Guided Media
 Waves are guided along a solid medium
 E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical
fiber
 Unguided Media
 Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
 Usually referred to as wireless transmission
 E.g., atmosphere, outer space
Unguided Media
 Transmission and reception are achieved by
means of an antenna
 Configurations for wireless transmission
 Directional
 Omnidirectional
General Frequency Ranges
 Microwave frequency range
 1 GHz to 40 GHz
 Directional beams possible
 Suitable for point-to-point transmission
 Used for satellite communications
 Radio frequency range
 30 MHz to 1 GHz
 Suitable for omnidirectional applications
 Infrared frequency range
 Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz
 Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications
within confined areas
Terrestrial Microwave
 Description of common microwave antenna
 Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter
 Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam
 Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving
antenna
 Located at substantial heights above ground level
 Applications
 Long haul telecommunications service
 Short point-to-point links between buildings
Satellite Microwave
 Description of communication satellite
 Microwave relay station
 Used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers
 Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink),
amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on
another frequency (downlink)
 Applications
 Television distribution
 Long-distance telephone transmission
 Private business networks
Broadcast Radio
 Description of broadcast radio antennas
 Omnidirectional
 Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
 Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise
alignment
 Applications
 Broadcast radio
 VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz
 Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
Multiplexing
 Capacity of transmission medium usually
exceeds capacity required for transmission
of a single signal
 Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on
a single medium
 More efficient use of transmission medium
Multiplexing
Reasons for Widespread Use of
Multiplexing
 Cost per kbps of transmission facility
declines with an increase in the data rate
 Cost of transmission and receiving
equipment declines with increased data rate
 Most individual data communicating
devices require relatively modest data rate
support
Multiplexing Techniques
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
 Takes advantage of the fact that the useful
bandwidth of the medium exceeds the required
bandwidth of a given signal
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
 Takes advantage of the fact that the achievable
bit rate of the medium exceeds the required data
rate of a digital signal
Frequency-division Multiplexing
F
R
E
Q
U
E
N
C
Y

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Time-division Multiplexing
 30 CHL PCM MUX FRAME & MULTI FRAME
1 MULTI FRMAE (2 m sec)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

FRAME – 125 u sec

32
TS 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
30
SPCH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
CHLS

FIRST 4 DIGITS OF FRAME 0

FAW 1 MFAW

Y0011011 0000X0XX 12 3 4 5 6 78
8 BITS PER CHL
ALTERNATE
EACH BIT = 488 n sec
FAW 2 FRAMES FRAMES 1 TO 15

Y10XXXXX 12 3 4 5 6 78
DIGIT 1 TO 4 FOR DIGIT 5 TO 8 FOR
CHL 1 TO 15 CHL 16 TO 30
SIGNALLING SIGNALLING 1 = LOSS OF MULTI FRAME
1 = LOSS OF FRAME ALIGNMENT ALIGNMENT
 Spectrum & Bandwidth
 Spectrum
 range of frequencies contained in signal
 Absolute bandwidth
 width of spectrum
 Effective bandwidth
 Often just bandwidth

 Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the

energy
 DC Component
 Component of zero frequency
WAVE FORM CODING TECHNIQUES

PULSE CODE MODULATION

DIFFERENTIAL PCM
ADAPTIVE DIFFERENTIAL PCM
DELTA MODULATION
ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION
MODULATION TYPES

Modulation is the process of transformation of the message

signal (baseband) into a form suitable for transmission over the
channel with acceptable degradation.
 Digitizing Analog Speech
PAM & PCM
• PAM (PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION). THE
AMPLITUDE OF A TRAIN OF PULSE IS VARIED
ACCORDING TO THE AMPLITUDE OF THE ANALOG
SIGNAL (MODULATING SIGNAL)

• PCM (PULSE CODE MODULATION). THE

ANALOG SIGNAL MODULATES A TRAIN OF PULSE
(PAM). IN EFFECT THE ANALOG SIGNAL IS SAMPLED
AND THE SAMPLES ARE CODED TO A BINARY VALUE
WHICH IS A FUNCTION OF THE AMPLITUDE OF THE
SAMPLED ANALOG SIGNAL

PCM = PAM + QUANTIZATION + COMPANDING

 PULSE CODE MODULATION
• PCM WAS DEVELOPED BY BELL LABS IN 1937
• PCM (ADPCM) IS THE PREFERRED METHOD OF
COMMUNICATION WITHIN THE PSTN
• PCM IS A TYPE OF CODING THAT IS CALLED
"WAVEFORM" CODING BECAUSE IT CREATES A
CODED FORM OF THE ORIGINAL VOICE WAVEFORM.
• PCM IS A WAVEFORM CODING METHOD DEFINED
IN THE ITU-T G.711 SPECIFICATION.
 Quantization
Companding

SINGLE CHANNEL SIMPLEX PCM TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

 PCM BLOCK DIAGRAM

PULSE
PULSE CODE
AMPLITUDE
MODULATED
MODULATED SIGNAL
SAMPLING
(PAM) SIGNAL
CLOCK (PCM)

QUANTIZER DIGITIZED
SAMPLING VOICE
AND
CIRCUIT SIGNAL
COMPANDER

ANALOG
VOICE VOICE BAND
SIGNAL FILTER
PULSE MODULATION

Signal

PAM

PWM

PPM
 CODEC
• SAMPLING
• QUANTIZING
• ENCODING

Analog Digital
signal signal
SAMPLER QUANTIZER ENCODER
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
 If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a
rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain all the
information of the original signal
 (Proof - Stallings appendix 4A)
 Voice data limited to below 4000Hz
 Require 8000 sample per second
 Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude Modulation,
PAM)
 Each sample assigned digital value
 SAMPLING THEOREM
STATEMENT :- Any signal with a bandwidth of W can be completely reconstructed if it
is sampled at a rate of 2W.
Original
waveform
samples
Capacitor
discharges

Capacitor
charges

Thus by sampling first at the transmitter and then passing the samples through a LPF the original
waveform can be completely reconstructed
 EFFECT OF UNDER SAMPLING

WRONGLY
ORIGINAL RECONSTRUCTED
SIGNAL AT 3 Hz SAMPLES AT LESS SIGNAL AT 1 Hz
SAMPLING RATE AT 2 Hz

THUS WHEN ANY WAVE IS SAMPLED AT A FREQUENCY THAT IS LESS

THAN DOUBLE THE MAXIMUM SIGNAL FREQUENCY, THE RECOVERED
WAVE WILL NOT BE OF THE SAME FREQUENCY AS THE INPUT
WAVEFORM. THIS DISTORTION IS CALLED ALIASING .
THUS, IT IS SEEN THAT THE SAMPLING FREQUENCY HAS TO BE
ADJUSTED SUCH THAT fs > 2fm
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
 4 bit system gives 16 levels
 Quantized
 Quantizing error or noise
 Approximations mean it is impossible to recover
original exactly
 8 bit sample gives 256 levels
 Quality comparable with analog transmission
 8000 samples per second of 8 bits each gives
64kbps
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

IN THIS TYPE OF SOURCE ENCODING THE SPEECH DATA THAT IS SAMPLED IS

QUANTISED OR FIXED AT PREDETERMINED LEVELS

8
IF WE CHOOSE 8 BIT PCM, THEN THE TOTAL No. OF LEVELS ARE 2 = 256

IF THE RANGE OF THE INPUT IS -V TO +V THEN, THE ENTIRE RANGE IS

DIVIDED INTO STEPS OF 2V/L. THUS THE STEP SIZE IS 2V/L.

IN COMMERCIAL 8 BIT PCM, WE HAVE 256 LEVELS OR 8 BITS PER SAMPLE OF

SPEECH DATA. THE SPEECH IS SAMPLED AT THE RATE OF 8 kHz. HENCE
THE DATA RATE OF THE COMMUNICATION IS 8 x 8 kHz = 64 kbps

HENCE THE BIT RATE OF EACH SPEECH CHANNEL IN 8 BIT PCM IS 64 kbps
 DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF 3 BIT PCM

4
CODE No. 7 3.5
3
CODE No. 6 2.5
2
CODE No. 5 1.5
1
CODE No. 4 0.5
0
CODE No. 3 -0.5
-1
CODE No. 2 -1.5
-2
CODE No. 1 -2.5
-3
CODE No. 0 -3.5
-4

SAMPLE VALUE 0.0 3.35 1.75 - 0.25 -1.4 -2.3 -3.5

NEAREST Q LEVEL 0.5 3.5 1.5 -0.5 -1.5 -2.5 -3.5
QUANT ERROR +0.5 +0.15 -0.25 +0.25 +0.1 +0.2 0.0
CODE NUMBER 4 7 5 3 2 1 0
ENCODED BITS 100 111 101 011 010 001 000
 LINEAR QUANTIZATION
USE OF EQUAL QUANTIZATION INTERVALS
THROUGHOUT THE ENTIRE DYNAMIC RANGE OF AN
INPUT ANALOG SIGNAL (FOR LOW & HIGH ENERGY
SIGNALS) RESULTS IN

LOW LEVEL SIGNALS HAVE A LOW SNR, HIGH LEVEL SIGNALS

HAVE A HIGH SNR (UNDESIRABLE)

MOST VOICE SIGNALS ARE OF LOW LEVELS. THUS,VERY

INEFFICIENT WAY OF DIGITIZING VOICE SIGNALS

TO IMPROVE VOICE QUALITY AT LOWER SIGNAL LEVELS,

USE A NON-UNIFORM (NON-LINEAR)
QUANTIZATION PROCESS CALLED COMPANDING
 NON-LINEAR PCM AND COMPANDING
IT HAS BEEN SEEN THAT SPEECH SIGNALS CONSIST PREDOMINANTLY OF
SMALL AMPLITUDE SIGNALS AND THE LARGE AMPLITUDE SIGNALS OCCUR
WITH MUCH LESSER PROBABILITY.

HENCE IT IS LOGICAL THAT THE SMALLER AMPLITUDES ARE QUANTISED WITH

MORE PRECISION.

THIS MEANS THAT THE STEP SIZE IS MAINTAINED SMALL FOR THE REGION
WHERE THE SIGNAL AMPLITUDE IS SMALL. CORRESPONDINGLY, THE STEP
SIZE FOR THE LARGE SIGNALS ARE MADE LARGE.

THIS WILL OF COURSE RESULT IN LARGE QUANTISATION ERROR IN CASE OF

LARGE SIGNALS. BUT THIS IS TOLERABLE SINCE THE LARGE SIGNAL
AMPLITUDES DO NOT OCCUR VERY REGULARLY.

THIS PROCESS OF VARYING THE STEP SIZE DURING THE ENCODING PROCESS
IS CALLED COMPRESSING AND THE CORRESPONDING RECEIVER WILL DO
EXPANDING TO REVERSE THE DISTORTION INTRODUCED AT THE ENCODER.
THIS PROCESS IS CALLED COMPANDING.
THIS TYPE PCM IS KNOWN AS NON-LINEAR OR LOGRITHMIC PCM
 NON-LINEAR QUANTIZATION

THE VOLTAGE RANGE BETWEEN THE LOWEST

LEVEL AND THE HIGHEST LEVEL IS DIVIDED INTO
SEGMENTS IN A NON-LINEAR MANNER
 LOGARITHMIC

• THE LOWER THE VOLTAGE LEVELS, THE SMALLER

THE RANGE OF A SEGMENT. THE RANGE OF A
SEGMENT GETS LARGER FOR HIGHER VOLTAGE
LEVELS

• THE NUMBER OF STEPS FOR EACH SEGMENT IS THE

SAME
 COMPANDING

• DURING THE COMPANDING PROCESS, INPUT

ANALOG SIGNAL SAMPLES ARE COMPRESSED INTO
LOGARITHMIC SEGMENTS AND THEN EACH
SEGMENT IS QUANTIZED AND CODED USING
UNIFORM QUANTIZATION.

• COMPANDING (COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION)

INCREASES SNR PERFORMANCE (MINIMISE
QUANTIZATION NOISE) WHILE KEEPING THE
NUMBER OF BITS USED FOR QUANTIZATION
CONSTANT.
 COMPANDOR
Compressor Expander
80dB
80dB
70dB 70dB

60dB 30dB 30dB 60dB

I/P O/P

40dB 40dB
20dB 20dB

A law: Y=Ax /(1+Log A); 0 < V/A

U law: U= log(1+ux) / log(1+u)

 DIFFERENTIAL PCM OR DPCM
IN DPCM THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PREVIOUS SAMPLE AND THE
PRESENT SAMPLE IS ENCODED AND TRANSMITTED.
ONE BIT IS THE SIGN BIT WHICH SAYS WETHER THE PREVIOUS SAMPLE IS
MORE OR LESS THAN THE PRESENT SAMPLE AND THREE BITS ARE USED TO
ENCODE THE ERROR OR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PREVIOUS SAMPLE
AND THE PRESENT SAMPLE

THE ADVANTAGE IN THIS SYSTEM IS THAT, THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

SAMPLES WILL NOT BE AS LARGE AS THE SAMPLE ITSELF. HENCE, WE CAN
USE LESSER NUMBER OF BITS FOR ENCODING. THIS IN TURN REDUCES THE
REQUIRED BANDWIDTH.

m(t) ERROR
DIFF AMP QUANTISER
~
m(t)

INTEGRAT DE-
OR QUANTISER

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A DPCM SYSTEM

 TRANSMISSIONS IN DPCM

CODE No. 7 3.5

3
CODE No. 6 2.5
2
CODE No. 5 1.5
1
CODE No. 4 0.5
0
CODE No. 3 -0.5
-1
CODE No. 2 -1.5
-2
CODE No. 1 -2.5
-3
CODE No. 0 -3.5
-4

NEAREST Q LEVEL 0.5 3.5 1.5 -0.5 -1.5 -2.5 -3.5

DIFFERENCE VALUE +0.5 + 3.0 -1.5 - 1.0 -0.5 -2.0 -1.5
Tx BITS 1001 1111 0011 0010 0001 0100 0011

IT MAY BE NOTED THAT EACH STEP IN THIS DPCM IS 0.5V WHEREAS THE STEP
SIZE IN THE CORRESPONDING PCM SYSTEM WAS 1V.
 ADAPTIVE DPCM OR ADPCM
IN THIS SYSTEM THE SPEECH WAVEFORM IS PREDICTED AND THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE PREDICTED VALUE AND THE PREVIOUS VALUE IS
ENCODED AND SENT.
THE ADVANTAGE OF THIS SYSTEM IS THAT DUE TO PREDICTION THE ERROR
MAGNITUDE REDUCES DRASTICALLY AND THUS THE BANDWIDTH ALSO
REDUCES CORRESPONDINGLY.
ERROR
m(t) DIFF AMP QUANTISER
~ m(t)

ADAPTIVE DE-
PREDICTOR QUANTISER

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A ADPCM SYSTEM

 DELTA MODULATION
IN THE DPCM, THE PCM DATA WAS USED TO PREDICT THE NEXT SAMPLE.
FOR TRANSMISSION OF SUCH DATA WE USED ONE SIGN BIT AND THREE
INFORMATION BITS. WE CAN DEVISE A NEW SPEECH REPRESENTATION
SCHEME WHERE WE CAN SEND ONLY THE SIGN BIT.
WHEN SAMPLED VALUE IS GREATER THAN A REFERENCE THEN A SYMBOL ‘1’
IF THE SAMPLE VALUE IS LESS THEN A SYMBOL ‘0’ IS USED
THIS IS DELTA MODULATION.

m(t) PULSE
MOD
COMPARATOR
~
m(t)

D/A UP/DN
CONVERTOR COUNTER

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A DELTA MODULATOR

~
V(n) = +1 if m(t) >= m(t)
V(n) = -1 if m(t) < ~
m(t)
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DELTA MODULATION
AND THE PROBLEMS THEREIN

SLOPE
OVERLOAD

~
m(t)

m(t)

PROBLEM DUE TO
SMALL STEP SIZE

time
 PROBLEMS IN DELTA MODULATION
THE MAJOR PROBLEMS OF DELTA MODULATION ARE :-

(a) SLOPE OVERLOAD WHICH RESULTS WHEN THE SLOPE OF THE SIGNAL EXCEEDS THE
SLOPE OF THE DELTA MODULATOR. THIS PROBLEM CAN BE OVERCOME BY USE OF A
LARGE STEP SIZE.

(b) SMALL SIGNAL VARIATIONS OF THE SIGNAL RESULT IN ALTERNATE 1’s AND 0’s WHICH
DURING RECONSTRUCTION, WILL RESULT IN A dc LIKE SIGNAL. THIS PROBLEM CAN BE
OVERCOME BY USE OF A SMALL STEP SIZE.

THESE CONFLICTING DEMANDS OF A LARGE STEP SIZE AND SMALL STEP SIZE CAN BE
OVERCOME BY USE OF SPECIAL DELTA MODULATOR WHICH
- USES A SMALL STEP SIZE WHEN THE SIGNAL VARIATIONS ARE SMALL
- USES A LARGE STEP SIZE WHEN THE SIGNAL VARIATIONS ARE LARGE

SUCH A SYSTEM IS CALLED THE ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATOR OR ADM

 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATOR

PULSE
GENERATOR

m(t) DIFFERENCE
MODULATOR
AMPLIFIER
~
m(t)

VARIABLE
INTEGRATOR
GAIN AMP

SQUARE LAW
DEVICE
 VARIABLE STEP SIZE OF ADM
1
1
VARIABLE STEP SIZE 0 1 0
AT THE INPUT OF THE
INTEGRATOR 0

1
DM OUTPUT

THUS IT CAN BE SEEN THAT THE ADM

OUTPUT IS ABLE TO FOLLOW THE
ACTUAL
1 ACTUAL SPEECH WAVEFORM MUCH
WAVEFORM MORE CLOSELY THAN THE DM
OUTPUT WHICH IS SEVERELY
AFFECTED BY SLOPE OVERLOAD

1 0

THE ADM OUTPUT IS “ 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 ”

Relationship between Data Rate
and Bandwidth
 The greater the bandwidth, the higher the
information-carrying capacity
 Conclusions
 Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
 BUT the transmission system will limit the
bandwidth that can be transmitted
 AND, for any given medium, the greater the
bandwidth transmitted, the greater the cost
 HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates
distortions
POWER MEASUREMENTS
UNITS OF
MEASUREMENT
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
 THE POWER LEVEL IN TRANSMISSION
EQUIPMENTS ARE VERY SMALL TO VERY
BIG.
 IF ALL THE MEASUREMENTS ARE TAKEN
HAVING THE SAME IMPEDANCE THE
VOLTAGE WILL GIVE DIRECT INDICATION
OF THE POWER LEVEL
P  EI
P  E / R
2

P  I * R
2
THE DECIBEL
 The decibel is widely used in
transmission system
 The decibel is a unit that describes a
ratio. It is logarithmic with base 10
 dB = 10 log (P2/P1)
Where P1is input level & P2 is output
level
dB

1W 2W
Net work
Gain (dB)=10 log (output/input) = 10 log
2/1
= 10(0.30103) = 3.0103
approximately 3 dB gain
dB
RATIO dB
2 3
3 5
10 10
4 = 2*2 ?
5 = 10/2 ?
80 = 2*2*2*10 ?
500 = 5*100 ?
1000/2
.001=1/1000 ?
0.02 = 2/100 ?
dB
RATIO dB
2 3
3 5
10 10
4 = 2*2 3+3 = 6
5 = 10/2 10 – 3 =7
80 = 2*2*2*10 3+3+3+10 = 19
500 = 5*100 7 +20 = 27
1000/2 30 – 3 =27
.001 = 1/1000 – 30
0.02 = 2/100 3 - 20 =-17
dB
RATIO dB
10 10
100 20
1000 30
10,000 40
0.1 -10
0.01 -20
0.001 -30
0.0001 -40
 BASIC DERIVED DECIBEL
UNIT

1. dBm : Power level related to 1 mW

Power (dBm) = 10 log (Power in
mW/1mW)
Eg. 20 W power = 10 log (20*1000/1)
= + 43 dBm
2. dbw: dBW= 10 log power (w)/1w
+30 dBm = 0dBW
-30 dBW = 0dBm
dBW = dBm +30 dB
CORRECTION FACTOR
 Most instrument have internal impedance of
600 . If the impedance of circuit under
test is 600 , then reading will be correct.
If the circuit impedance is 150  then,
Indicated Power = E 2 / 600
Actual power = E 2 / 150

( E 2 / 600)  ( E 2 / 150)
Error =
Error in dB = 10 log( E 2 / 600)  10 log( E 2 / 150)

10 log(150 / 600)  6 dB
CORRECTION FACTOR
 Thus the correction factor = +6
dB

 The correction factor for 300 

is ? +3dB

 For 75  impedance it is ? +9dB

 EXERCISE

4 mw ?
-12dB +35 dB -10dB

?
1w Net work 27 dB
loss

10 w Network 27 dB ?
gain
ZERO TRANSMISSION LEVEL
POINT (ZTLP)
 ZTLP – it is the point in the system at
which the standard test tone has an
absolute power of 1mw or 0 dBm
 It is a reference level for the system
 Generally situated in the trunk
exchange at the transmit end of a long
haul system
RELATIVE TRANSMISSION
LEVEL(dBr)
 The level of any point in the system
expressed in dB relative to ZTLP is
referred to as dBr of that point
 E.g. –33 dBr point in the system will be
33 dB below the ZTLP
RELATIVE POWER
LEVEL(dBmo)
 The term dBmo is a measure of power at any
dBr point with reference to 0 dBm at the
ZTLP
 dBmo = dBm - dBr
 E. g. A tone of +36 dBm measured at +19
dBr transmission level point is equivalent to
+17 dBmo
 A tone of +17 dBmo is equivalent to +7 dBm
measured at – 10 dBr point
NOISE MEASURING UNITS
 The interfering effect of noise on
speech telephony is a function of
response of human ear to specific
frequencies in the voice channel
 1000Hz tone at –90 dBm was chosen as
reference
 Any level below -90 is not ordinarily
audible
dBrn
 Western electric 144 hand set used
 1KHz at –90 dBm taken as reference
0 dBrn = -90 dBm at 1000 Hz
+90 dBrn = 0 dBm or 1 mW
 Weighing net work provides 8 dB
attenuation at 3KHz band of white noise
dBrn = dBm + 82 for white noise of 3 KHz
dBa
 dBa – stand for dB reference noise adjusted
 Western electric w-3 type F1-A hand set
used
 1000 Hz at –85 dBm taken as reference
0 dBa = - 85 dBm at 1KHz
 Weighing net work provides 3 dB
attenuation when subjected to 3 KHz band
of white noise
dBa = dBrn – 5 for 1KHz tone
= dBm +82 for white noise of 3 KHz band
dBrnc
 Western electric type 150 hand set used
 1000Hz at – 90 dBm taken as reference

0 dBrnc = - 90 dBm at 1000 Hz

 Weighing net work provides 2 dB attenuation

at 3KHz band, also known as message

weighing
dBrnc = dBrn, dBa – 5 for single tone of 1KHz
= dBrn +6, dBa +6, dBm + 88 for white
Noise of 3 KHz band
 dBmp & pWp
 It is measured with psophometer &
called psophometrically weighted
 800 Hz at 0 dBm taken as reference
 Provides 2 dB attenuation at 3KHz band
0 dBmp = 0 dBm at 800 Hz
=dBm – 2 for white noise of 3 KHz