Introduction to Qualitative Research

Methods, Design, & Data Analysis

Qualitative Research
You can learn a lot just by watching

Origins of Qualitative Approaches

Developed as a reaction to positivist philosophy which had overrun all sciences, even philosophy itself Recognition that the lived world of humanity requires a different research approach to the natural world

MAKING SENSE OF OTHERS REALITY

scientific paradigms
Quantitative and qualitative research may largely

be seen as existing within two separate scientific

paradigms. Quantitative Research is rooted in the Positivist paradigm. Qualitative Research is rooted in the Interpretive paradigm.

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BASIC CONCEPTS
A scientific paradigm connects and categorises a variety of research techniques through underlying philosophical assumptions surrounding appropriate research practice. Within each paradigm the nature of knowledge is assumed to be different. Epistemology is the philosophical debate about the nature of knowledge.

Methodology specifies how the researcher may go about practically studying whatever he or she believes can be known (the theory informing the practice of research).

THE POSITIVIST PARADIGM

Positivism argues that research should act as an organised method surrounding precise empirical observations of individual behaviour in order to discover and confirm a set of probabilistic causal laws that can be used to predict general patterns of human activity (Neuman, 1997: 63) Empiricism argues that only that which can be experienced through the senses may be known to be real. Positivist research gained dominance in the natural sciences and was later adopted in social sciences.

THE INTERPRETIVE PARADIGM The interpretive approach argues that research should explore socially meaningful action through the direct detailed observation of people in natural settings in order to arrive at understandings and interpretations of how people create and maintain their social worlds (Neuman, 1997:68). We use methods that try to describe and interpret peoples feelings and experiences in human terms rather than through quantification and measurement (Terre Blanche & Kelly, 1999: 123).

POSITIVIST

INTERPRETIVE

Discovery of universal laws Discovery of how people governing social world. make sense of their social worlds. A fixed social reality exists Many social realities exist that may be measured and due to varying human described. experience. Human behaviour is both Human behaviour is context rational and predictable. bound and variable. Positivist science is capable of uncovering truth. Common sense provides insight into social realities.

POSITIVIST
Discovery of social fact is achieved through reason.

INTERPRETIVE
Understanding of social reality is achieved through rich contextual description.

Empirical observation Contextual understanding serve to illuminate social exposes a social reality. facts. Objective, value-free study is crucial in social research. Recognition of subjectivity in social research is important.

Elements of the Research Process

DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE REASONING

Deductive thinking (Quantitative)

THEORY HYPOTHESIS

OBSERVATION
CONFIRMATION

Elements of the Research Process (Cont.)

Inductive thinking (Qualitative) OBSERVATION PATTERNS HYPOTHESIS THEORY

QUANTITATIVE
Research process is deductive. Measure objective facts. Focus on variables.

QUALITATIVE
Research process is inductive. Social reality, meaning is constructed. Focus on in-depth meaning. Values are present & explicit (empathy). Contextual importance. Few cases, participants.

Value-free research. Independent of context.

Many cases, subjects.

QUANTITATIVE Statistical analysis Objective instruments of data collection. Highly structured research process.

QUALITATIVE Thematic analysis Researcher as the central tool for data collection. Loosely structured research process.

Researcher is detached (outsider).

(Adapted from Neuman, 1997: 14)

Researcher is immersed (insider).

QUANTITATIVE result oriented particularistic and analytical

QUALITATIVE process oriented holistic perspective

objective outsider view subjective insider view distant from data and closeness to data
generalized by population generalization by comparison of properties and contexts membership
of individual organism

 Although

positivist

approach

attempts

to

understand social phenomena through largely quantitative means, and the interpretive

approach mainly through qualitative techniques. it is important not overemphasise the difference between these methods.

Qualitative research...
Commonly called interpretive research

its methods rely heavily on thick verbal descriptions of a particular social context being studied

Qualitative research...
It is useful for describing or answering questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices a helpful process for exploring a complex research area about which little is known

Qualitative research...
Interpretation, as the core of qualitative research focuses on the meaning of human experience. The focus is on understanding human experience rather than explaining and predicting behaviour. It is acknowledged that meaning and behaviour occurs within particular social, cultural and historical contexts.

Qualitative Research
a definition by Van Maanen (1979)

An umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain naturally occurring phenomena in the social world (p. 520)

Qualitative Research
a definition by (Banister et al., 1994)

Qualitative research is the interpretive study of a specified issue or problem in which the researcher is central to the sense that is made

Qualitative Research
a definition by (Banister et al., 1994) The goal of qualitative research is the development of concepts which help us to understand social phenomena in natural (rather than experimental) settings, giving due emphasis to the meanings, experiences, and views of all the participants. Pope & Mays. BMJ 1995; 311: 42-45.

Essential Characteristics of Qualitative Research

concerned with understanding a phenomenon assumes multiple realities data is in the form of rich verbal descriptions researcher is immersed and in direct contact during the data collection the data collection is highly interactive data collection methodology evolves and is flexible; a tentative approach to the methodology

Essential Characteristics of Qualitative Research

emphasizes the holistic perspective research is context sensitive illuminate the invisibility of everyday life; make the familiar strange construct meaning from the participants point of view (informants rather than subjects) explores open questions rather than testing hypothesis employs purposive sampling and gate keepers

Appropriateness of Qualitative Research

When variables cannot be quantified When variables are best understood in their natural settings When variables are studied over time When studying roles, processes, and groups When the paramount objective is understanding

What to Observe or Study

Behaviors or practices Episodes, common events (death, birth, etc.) Encounters when groups or people interact Roles Relationship roles mother/daughter; wife/husband, Therapist/disabled, etc.

Qualifications of Investigators
(Kuh & Andreas, 1991)

Must have requisite knowledge and skills about methodology, setting and nature of the issue. Must be familiar with own biases, assumptions, expectations, and values. Must be empathic, intelligent, energetic, and interested in listening Must be open to embracing multiple realities. Must be prepared to produce detailed, comprehensive, and sometimes lengthy reports.

The Qualitative Research Design

a rough working frame --(Whitt, 1991)
An initial focus (problem, phenomenon, question) Phases of the study (background, entry, exploration, closure) Plan for identifying setting and data sources Plan and logistics for data collection and analysis Plan for ensuring trustworthiness

Phases in Qualitative Research

Conceptualize and plan study Use literature,formulate study purpose or question, identify study site,settings where/how data collection will occur, participants and entre to setting

Goal: Access the participants world & meanings. Researcher is the instrument

Start study with concurrent data collection and analysis. Analysis focused on identifying themes and categories-- similarities in data. Question or purpose may emerge and be refined. Data collection strategies may change

Sampling and data collection determined by theoretical saturation. Analysis based on narrative description

Selecting participants...
The goal is to get the deepest possible understanding of the setting being studied
Requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied

Selecting participants...
It is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied
Utilizes purposive sampling

Differences Between Random & Purposeful Sampling

Random Quantitative Sampling
Select Representative individuals
To generalize from sample to population
To make claims about the population To build/test theories that explain the popn

Purposeful Qualitative Sampling

Select people/sites who can best help us understand our phenomenon
To develop detailed understanding
That might be useful: information That might help people learn about the phenomenon That might give voice to silenced people

Sampling in Qualitative Studies

Sample size is always determined by the analysis. It is part of the design and so is influenced by the nature of the inquiry, quality of the informants, the quality of the data.
The researcher is looking for saturationthe point at which there is no new cases coming from each new participant and redundant information keeps coming up. This must be differentiated from participant saturation where the researcher cannot drag anything new out of the umpteenth interview with that particular person.

Types of Data Collection

(or fieldwork)

Observation
Interviewing Focus Groups Document Analysis

The Three-Interview Series

(Seidman, 1998)

Interview One: Life History

Interview Two: Details of the Experience

Interview Three: Reflection on the Meaning

Qualitative Research Methods: Triangulation

Method to enhance the validity & reliability of qualitative research Enhances accuracy of interpretation Confirms that the data collected is not due to chance or circumstances

Qualitative Research Methods: Triangulation

For example:
Collect data from May interview teachers, multiple sources principals & parents Collect data in May interview & multiple ways from observe students subjects May review student Collect different records, interview kinds of data in teachers, observe multiple ways from students multiple subjects

Qualitative Research Methods: Triangulation

Multiple data collection strategies
Kinds of data

Multiple kinds of data

Subjects Data collection (data sources) strategies

Multiple data sources

Resources
(Kuh & Andreas, 1991)

Recording devices Transcribing equipment Software packages for analyzing Member checks participants Space Time

Qualitative Research: Data Analysis

The Data Analysis
Some form of Generally collected in analysis usually the form of takes place at the field notes, same time data is diaries being collected audio & video tapes, Researcher seeks copies of documents, to identify patterns narrative descriptions or trends

Qualitative Research: Data Analysis

Qualitative data may be analyzed by a 3part strategy: reducing the data coding the data synthesizing the data

Qualitative Research: Data Analysis

Read and re-read data, become engrossed in it. Identify themes: common, conflicting, minority Test themes across the data set, where are they common, under what circumstances are they found, not found. This sets the parameters on the interpretation and generalisation of data Get more than one person to analyse the data independently then together Demonstrate trustworthiness in data analysis

Common Qualitative Research Approaches

Case study Ethnography Grounded theory Phenomenology Historical Action Research