Digital Communications I: Modulation
and Coding Course
Term 3 - 2008
Catharina Logothetis
Lecture 4
Lecture 4 2
Last time we talked about:
Receiver structure
Impact of AWGN and ISI on the transmitted
signal
Optimum filter to maximize SNR
Matched filter receiver and Correlator receiver
Lecture 4 3
Receiver job
Demodulation and sampling:
Waveform recovery and preparing the received
signal for detection:
Improving the signal power to the noise power (SNR)
using matched filter
Reducing ISI using equalizer
Sampling the recovered waveform
Detection:
Estimate the transmitted symbol based on the
received sample
Lecture 4 4
Receiver structure
Frequency
down-conversion
Receiving
filter
Equalizing
filter
Threshold
comparison
For bandpass signals
Compensation for
channel induced ISI
Baseband pulse
(possibly distored)
Sample
(test statistic)
Baseband pulse
Received waveform
Step 1 waveform to sample transformation Step 2 decision making
) (t r
) (T z
i
m
Demodulate & Sample Detect
Lecture 4 5
Implementation of matched filter receiver
(
(
(
M
z
z
1
z =
) (t r
) (
1
T z
) (
*
1
t T s
) (
*
t T s
M
) (T z
M
z
Bank of M matched filters
Matched filter output:
Observation
vector
) ( ) ( t T s t r z
i
i
- =
-
M i ,..., 1 =
) ,..., , ( )) ( ),..., ( ), ( (
2 1 2 1 M M
z z z T z T z T z = = z
Lecture 4 6
Implementation of correlator receiver
dt t s t r z
i
T
i
) ( ) (
0
}
=
}
T
0
) ( 1 t s
-
}
T
0
) (t s M
-
(
(
(
M
z
z
1
z =
) (t r
) (
1
T z
) (T z
M
z
Bank of M correlators
Correlators output:
Observation
vector
) ,..., , ( )) ( ),..., ( ), ( (
2 1 2 1 M M
z z z T z T z T z = = z
M i ,..., 1 =
Lecture 4 7
Today, we are going to talk about:
Detection:
Estimate the transmitted symbol based on the
received sample
Signal space used for detection
Orthogonal N-dimensional space
Signal to waveform transformation and vice versa
Lecture 4 8
Signal space
What is a signal space?
Vector representations of signals in an N-dimensional
orthogonal space
Why do we need a signal space?
It is a means to convert signals to vectors and vice versa.
It is a means to calculate signals energy and Euclidean
distances between signals.
Why are we interested in Euclidean distances between
signals?
For detection purposes: The received signal is transformed to
a received vectors. The signal which has the minimum
distance to the received signal is estimated as the transmitted
signal.
Lecture 4 9
Schematic example of a signal space
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 2 2 1 1
32 31 3 2 32 1 31 3
22 21 2 2 22 1 21 2
12 11 1 2 12 1 11 1
z z t z t z t z
a a t a t a t s
a a t a t a t s
a a t a t a t s
= + =
= + =
= + =
= + =
z
s
s
s
) (
1
t
) (
2
t
) , (
12 11 1
a a = s
) , (
22 21 2
a a = s
) , (
32 31 3
a a = s
) , (
2 1
z z = z
Transmitted signal
alternatives
Received signal at
matched filter output
Lecture 4 10
Signal space
To form a signal space, first we need to know
the inner product between two signals
(functions):
Inner (scalar) product:
Properties of inner product:
}
>= < dt t y t x t y t x ) ( ) ( ) ( ), (
*
= cross-correlation between x(t) and y(t)
> < >= < ) ( ), ( ) ( ), ( t y t x a t y t ax
> < >= < ) ( ), ( ) ( ), (
*
t y t x a t ay t x
> < + > >=< + < ) ( ), ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ), ( ) ( t z t y t z t x t z t y t x
Lecture 4 11
Signal space
The distance in signal space is measure by calculating
the norm.
What is norm?
Norm of a signal:
Norm between two signals:
We refer to the norm between two signals as the
Euclidean distance between two signals.
x
E dt t x t x t x t x = = > < =
}
2
) ( ) ( ), ( ) (
) ( ) ( t x a t ax =
) ( ) (
,
t y t x d
y x
=
= length of x(t)
Lecture 4 12
Example of distances in signal space
) (
1
t
) (
2
t
) , (
12 11 1
a a = s
) , (
22 21 2
a a = s
) , (
32 31 3
a a = s
) , (
2 1
z z = z
z s
d
,
1
z s
d
,
2
z s
d
,
3
The Euclidean distance between signals z(t) and s(t):
3 , 2 , 1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
2 2
2
1 1 ,
=
+ = =
i
z a z a t z t s d
i i i z s
i
1
E
3
E
2
E
Lecture 4 13
Orthogonal signal space
N-dimensional orthogonal signal space is characterized by
N linearly independent functions called basis
functions. The basis functions must satisfy the orthogonality
condition
where
If all , the signal space is orthonormal.
{ }
N
j
j
t
1
) (
=
ji i j
T
i j i
K dt t t t t o = >= <
}
) ( ) ( ) ( ), (
*
0
T t s s 0
N i j ,..., 1 , =
=
=
=
j i
j i
ij
0
1
o
1 =
i
K
Lecture 4 14
Example of an orthonormal basis
Example: 2-dimensional orthonormal signal space
Example: 1-dimensional orthonormal signal space
1 ) ( ) (
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ), (
0 ) / 2 sin(
2
) (
0 ) / 2 cos(
2
) (
2 1
2
0
1 2 1
2
1
= =
= >= <
< s =
< s =
}
t t
dt t t t t
T t T t
T
t
T t T t
T
t
T
t
t
T t
) (
1
t
T
1
0
) (
1
t
) (
2
t
0
1 ) (
1
= t
) (
1
t
0
Lecture 4 15
Signal space
Any arbitrary finite set of waveforms
where each member of the set is of duration T, can be
expressed as a linear combination of N orthonogal
waveforms where .
where
{ }
M
i
i
t s
1
) (
=
{ }
N
j
j
t
1
) (
=
M N s
=
=
N
j
j ij i
t a t s
1
) ( ) (
M i ,..., 1 =
M N s
dt t t s
K
t t s
K
a
T
j i
j
j i
j
ij
) ( ) (
1
) ( ), (
1
0
*
}
>= < = T t s s 0
M i ,..., 1 =
N j ,..., 1 =
) ,..., , (
2 1 iN i i i
a a a = s
2
1
ij
N
j
j i
a K E
=
=
Vector representation of waveform
Waveform energy
Lecture 4 16
Signal space
=
=
N
j
j ij i
t a t s
1
) ( ) (
) ,..., , (
2 1 iN i i i
a a a = s
(
(
(
iN
i
a
a
1
) (
1
t
) (t
N
1 i
a
iN
a
) (t s
i
}
T
0
) (
1
t
}
T
0
) (t
N
(
(
(
iN
i
a
a
1
m
s =
) (t s
i
1 i
a
iN
a
m
s
Waveform to vector conversion Vector to waveform conversion
Lecture 4 17
Example of projecting signals to an
orthonormal signal space
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( ) ( ) ( ) (
32 31 3 2 32 1 31 3
22 21 2 2 22 1 21 2
12 11 1 2 12 1 11 1
a a t a t a t s
a a t a t a t s
a a t a t a t s
= + =
= + =
= + =
s
s
s
) (
1
t
) (
2
t
) , (
12 11 1
a a = s
) , (
22 21 2
a a = s
) , (
32 31 3
a a = s
Transmitted signal
alternatives
dt t t s a
T
j i ij
) ( ) (
0
}
=
T t s s 0
M i ,..., 1 =
N j ,..., 1 =
Lecture 4 18
Signal space contd
To find an orthonormal basis functions for a given
set of signals, the Gram-Schmidt procedure can be
used.
Gram-Schmidt procedure:
Given a signal set , compute an orthonormal basis
1. Define
2. For compute
If let
If , do not assign any basis function.
3. Renumber the basis functions such that basis is
This is only necessary if for any i in step 2.
Note that
{ }
M
i i
t s
1
) (
=
{ }
N
j
j
t
1
) (
=
) ( / ) ( / ) ( ) (
1 1 1 1 1
t s t s E t s t = =
M i ,..., 2 =
=
> < =
1
1
) ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ) (
i
j
j j i i i
t t t s t s t d
0 ) ( = t d
i
) ( / ) ( ) ( t d t d t
i i i
=
0 ) ( = t d
i
{ } ) ( ),..., ( ), (
2 1
t t t
N
0 ) ( = t d
i
M N s
Lecture 4 19
Example of Gram-Schmidt procedure
Find the basis functions and plot the signal space for the following
transmitted signals:
Using Gram-Schmidt procedure:
T t
) (
1
t s
T t
) (
2
t s
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2 1
1 2
1 1
A A
t A t s
t A t s
= =
=
=
s s
) (
1
t
-A A 0
1
s
2
s
T
A
T
A
0
0
T t
) (
1
t
T
1
0
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ), (
/ ) ( / ) ( ) (
) (
1 2 2
0
1 2 1 2
1 1 1 1
0
2
2
1 1
= =
= >= <
= =
= =
}
}
t A t s t d
A dt t t s t t s
A t s E t s t
A dt t s E
T
T
1
2
Lecture 4 20
Implementation of the matched filter receiver
) (t r
1
z
) ( 1 t T
-
) ( t T N
-
N
z
Bank of N matched filters
Observation
vector
) ( ) ( t T t r z
j j
- =
N j ,..., 1 =
) ,..., , (
2 1 N
z z z = z
=
=
N
j
j ij i
t a t s
1
) ( ) (
M N s
M i ,..., 1 =
(
(
(
N
z
z
1
z =
z
Lecture 4 21
Implementation of the correlator receiver
) ,..., , (
2 1 N
z z z = z
N j ,..., 1 = dt t t r z
j
T
j
) ( ) (
0
}
=
}
T
0
) (
1
t
}
T
0
) (t
N
(
(
(
N
r
r
1
z =
) (t r
1
z
N
z
z
Bank of N correlators
Observation
vector
=
=
N
j
j ij i
t a t s
1
) ( ) ( M i ,..., 1 =
M N s
Lecture 4 22
Example of matched filter receivers using
basic functions
Number of matched filters (or correlators) is reduced by 1 compared to using
matched filters (correlators) to the transmitted signal.
Reduced number of filters (or correlators)
T t
) (
1
t s
T t
) (
2
t s
T t
) (
1
t
T
1
0
| |
1
z
z =
) (t r z
1 matched filter
T t
) (
1
t
T
1
0
1
z
T
A
T
A
0
0
Lecture 4 23
White noise in the orthonormal signal space
AWGN, n(t), can be expressed as
) (
~
) (
) ( t n t n t n + =
Noise projected on the signal space
which impacts the detection process.
Noise outside on the signal space
> =< ) ( ), ( t t n n
j j
0 ) ( ), (
~
>= < t t n
j
) ( ) (
1
t n t n
N
j
j j
=
=
N j ,..., 1 =
N j ,..., 1 =
Vector representation of
) ,..., , (
2 1 N
n n n = n
) ( t n
independent zero-mean
Gaussain random variables with
variance
{ }
N
j
j
n
1 =
2 / ) var(
0
N n
j
=
