RESPIRATION
Gas Exchange
PARTIAL PRESSURES
In a mixture of gasses, the total pressure distributes among the constituents proportional to their percent of the total
The concentration of a gas can therefore be expressed as its partial pressure
Partial Pressures in air
Oxygen = 21% Nitrogen = 79%
Po2
160 mm Hg
PN2 = 600 mm Hg Total Pressure (at sea level) = 760mm Hg
Effect of water vapor
As fresh air enters the nose and mouth it is immediately mixed with water vapor Since the total pressure remains constant, the water vapor lowers the partial pressure of all other gases For this reason, the PO2 is lowered to about 149 mmHg
DEAD SPACE VOLUME
At the height of expiration, about 150ml of gas still occupies the respiratory tree This old gas is necessarily mixed with the incoming fresh air and further lowers the PO2 to about 100 mmHg
GAS EXCHANGE ACROSS PULMONARY CAPILLARIES
Both oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse down their concentration (partial pressure) gradients
Inspired Air PO2 = 160mmHg PCO2 = 0.03mmHg LUNG PO2 = 100mmHg PCO2 = 40mmHg
PULMONARY CAPILLARIES PO2 = 40mmHg PCO2 = 46mmHg
PO2 = 100mmHg PCO2 = 40mmHg
GAS EXCHANGE ACROSS SYSTEMIC CAPILLARIES
Both oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse down their concentration (partial pressure) gradients
TISSUE PO2 < 40mmHg PCO2 > 46mmHg
SYSTEMIC CAPILLARIES PO2 = 40mmHg PCO2 = 46mmHg
PO2 = 100mmHg PCO2 = 40mmHg
Carbon dioxide/Bicarbonate Relationship
CO2 + H2O <---> H2CO3 <---> H+ + HCO3-
Carbon dioxide dissolved in water readily combines with water to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid then dissociates into the hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion. The former reaction is catalized by and enzyme called Carbonic Anhydrase in many tissues.
GAS TRANSPORT IN BLOOD
Oxygen physically dissolved = 1.5% Oxygen bound to hemoglobin = 98.5% Carbon dioxide physically dissolved = 10% Carbon dioxide bound to hemoglobin = 30% Carbon dioxide as bicarbonate = 60%
HEMOGLOBIN/OXYGEN DISSOCIATION
Resting PO2 Systemic
Normal PO2 Capillaries
% Hemoglobin Saturation
PO2 of blood (mmHg)
Agents which shift the Hb/O Dissociation curve: The Bohr Effect
UNDERSTANDING THE HB/O DISSOCIATION CURVE
The plateau: Provides a margin of safety in the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood The steep portion: Small changes in Oxygen levels can cause significant changes in binding. This promotes release to the tissues.
Agents which shift the Hb/O Dissociation curve: The Bohr Effect
Carbon dioxide/Bicarbonate Relationship
CO2 + H2O <---> H2CO3 <---> H+ + HCO3-
Carbon dioxide dissolved in water readily combines with water to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid then dissociates into the hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion. The former reaction is catalized by and enzyme called Carbonic Anhydrase in many tissues.
Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood: At the tissues
Tissue Cell Carbonic Anhydrase
CO2 + H2O ---> H2CO3 ---> H+ + HCO3 + Hb --->HbH + Hb ---> HbCO
2
HbO2 -----> Hb + O2
Red Blood Cell
Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood: At the lungs
Alveolus
Carbonic Anhydrase
CO2 + H2O <--- H2CO3 <--- H+ + HCO3+ Hb <---HbH + Hb <--- HbCO
2
HbO2 <--- Hb + O2
Red Blood Cell
The Haldane Effect
Removal of oxygen from hemoglobin increases hemoglobins affinity for carbon dioxide This allows carbon dioxide to ride on the empty hemoglobin
RESPIRATORY CONTROL
Pons: Pneumotactic center Pons: Apneustic center Medulla: Dorsal respiratory group Medulla: Ventral respiratory group
Medulla: Dorsal respiratory group
Inspiratory neurons Pacemaker activity
Expiration occurs when these cease firing
Medulla: Ventral respiratory group
Both inspiratory and expiratory neurons Inactive during normal quiet breathing
Rev up inspiratory activity when demands for ventilation are high
Pons: Pneumotactic center
Fine tuning over medullary centers Switches off inspiration
Pons: Apneustic center
Fine tuning over medullary centers Blocks switching off of inspiritory neurons
CARBON DIOXIDE CONTROLLS RESPIRATION
High carbon dioxide generates acidity of blood in brain Acidity of blood in systemic circulation is prevented from directly influencing the brain due to the blood/brain barriers impermeability to H+
CO2 + H2O <---> H2CO3 <---> H+ + HCO3
OXYGEN LEVELS MUST FALL DRASTICALLY TO AFFECT BREATHING
Receptors in carotid bodies Below 60 mmHg for oxygen partial pressure, breathing is stimulated This is a last-ditch, fail-safe mechanism only!
