Chapter 45

Applications of Nuclear
Physics
Processes of Nuclear Energy
 Fission
 A nucleus of large mass number splits into
two smaller nuclei
 Fusion
 Two light nuclei fuse to form a heavier
nucleus
 Large amounts of energy are released
in either case
Interactions Involving
Neutrons
 Because of their charge neutrality,
neutrons are not subject to Coulomb
forces
 As a result, they do not interact
electrically with electrons or the nucleus
 Neutrons can easily penetrate deep into
an atom and collide with the nucleus
Fast Neutrons
 A fast neutron has energy greater than 1 MeV
 During its many collisions when traveling
through matter, the neutron gives up some of
its kinetic energy to a nucleus
 For some materials and fast neutrons, elastic
collisions dominate
 These materials are called moderators since they
moderate the originally energetic neutrons very
efficiently
Thermal Neutrons
 Most neutrons bombarding a moderator
will be come thermal neutrons
 They are in thermal equilibrium with the
moderator material
 Their average kinetic energy at room
temperature is about 0.04 eV
 This corresponds to a neutron root-mean-
square speed of about 2 800 m/s

Thermal neutrons have a distribution of speeds
Neutron Capture
 Once the energy of a neutron is sufficiently
low, there is a high probability that it will be
captured by a nucleus
 The neutron capture equation can be written
as
1
0 n+ X→
A
Z
A +1
Z X* → A +1
Z X+γ
 The excited state lasts for a very short time
 The product nucleus is generally radioactive and
decays by beta emission
 Nuclear Fission
 A heavy nucleus splits into two
smaller nuclei
 Fission is initiated when a heavy
nucleus captures a thermal neutron
 The total mass of the products is less
than the original mass of the heavy
nucleus
 This difference in mass is called the
mass defect
Short History of Fission
 First observed in 1939 by Otto Hahn
and Fritz Strassman following basic
studies by Fermi
 Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch soon
explained what had happened
Fission Equation: 235U
 Fission of 235U by a thermal neutron
1
0 n+ 235
92 U→ 92 U* → X + Y + neutrons
236

 236 U* is an intermediate, excited state that

exists for about 10-12 s before splitting
 X and Y are called fission fragments
 Many combinations of X and Y satisfy the
requirements of conservation of energy and
charge
Distribution of Fission
Products
 The most probable
products have mass
numbers A ≈ 140
and A ≈ 95
 There are also an
average of 2.5
neutrons released
per event
Fission Event Described by
the Liquid-Drop Model
 A slow neutron approaches the 235U nucleus
 The 235U nucleus captures a thermal neutron
 This capture results in the formation of 236U*,
and the excess energy of this nucleus causes
it to deform and oscillate
 The 236U* nucleus becomes highly elongated,
and the force of repulsion between the
protons tends to increase the distortion
 The nucleus splits into two fragments,
emitting several neutrons in the process
Fission Described by the
Liquid-Drop Model – Diagram

 (a) Approach (b) Absorption

 (c) Oscillation (d) Fission
Energy in a Fission Process
 Binding energy for heavy nuclei is about 7.2
MeV per nucleon
 Binding energy for intermediate nuclei is
about 8.2 MeV per nucleon
 Therefore, the fission fragments have less
mass than the nucleons in the original nuclei
 This decrease in mass per nucleon appears
as released energy in the fission event
Energy, cont.
 An estimate of the energy released
 Releases about 1 MeV per nucleon
 8.2 MeV – 7.2 MeV
 Assume a total of 235 nucleons
 Total energy released is about 235 MeV
 This is the disintegration energy, Q
 This is very large compared to the
amount of energy released in chemical
processes
Chain Reaction
 Neutrons are emitted when 235U undergoes
fission
 An average of 2.5 neutrons
 These neutrons are then available to trigger
fission in other nuclei
 This process is called a chain reaction
 If uncontrolled, a violent explosion can occur
 When controlled, the energy can be put to
constructive use
Chain Reaction – Diagram
Active Figure 45.3

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

Enrico Fermi
 1901 – 1954
 Nobel Prize in 1938 for
producing transuranic
elements by neutron
irradiation
 Other contributions
include theory of beta
decay, free-electron
theory of metal,
development of world’s
first fission reactor
(1942)
Nuclear Reactor
 A nuclear reactor is a system designed to
maintain a self-sustained chain reaction
 The reproduction constant K is defined as
the average number of neutrons from each
fission event that will cause another fission
event
 The maximum value of K from uranium fission is
2.5

In practice, K is less than this
 A self-sustained reaction has K = 1
K Values
 When K = 1, the reactor is said to be critical
 The chain reaction is self-sustaining
 When K < 1, the reactor is said to be
subcritical
 The reaction dies out
 When K > 1, the reactor is said to be
supercritical
 A run-away chain reaction occurs
Reactor Fuel
 Most reactors today use uranium as
fuel
 Naturally occurring uranium is 99.3% 238U
and 0.7% 235U
 238 U almost never fissions
 It tends to absorb neutrons producing
neptunium and plutonium
 Fuels are generally enriched to at least a
few percent 235U
 Moderator
 The moderator slows the neutrons
 The slower neutrons are more likely to react with
235
U than 238U

The probability of neutron capture by 238U is high when the
neutrons have high kinetic energies

Conversely, the probability of capture is low when the
neutrons have low kinetic energies
 The slowing of the neutrons by the moderator
makes them available for reactions with 235U while
decreasing their chances of being captured by 238U
Pressurized Water Reactor –
Diagram
Pressurized Water Reactor –
Notes
 This type of reactor is the most common in
use in electric power plants in the US
 Fission events in the uranium in the fuel rods
raise the temperature of the water contained
in the primary loop
 The primary system is a closed system
 This water is maintained at a high pressure to
keep it from boiling
 This water is also used as the moderator to
slow down the neutrons
Pressurized Water Reactor –
Notes, cont.
 The hot water is pumped through a heat
exchanger
 The heat is transferred by conduction to
the water contained in a secondary
system
 This water is converted into steam
 The steam is used to drive a turbine-
generator to create electric power
Pressurized Water Reactor –
Notes, final
 The water in the secondary system is isolated
from the water in the primary system
 This prevents contamination of the secondary
water and steam by the radioactive nuclei in the
core
 A fraction of the neutrons produced in fission
leak out before inducing other fission events
 An optimal surface area-to-volume ratio of the fuel
elements is a critical design feature
Basic Reactor Design
 Fuel elements consist
of enriched uranium
 The moderator material
helps to slow down the
neutrons
 The control rods absorb
neutrons
 All of these are
surrounded by a
radiation shield
Control Rods
 To control the power level, control rods are
inserted into the reactor core
 These rods are made of materials that are
very efficient in absorbing neutrons
 Cadmium is an example
 By adjusting the number and position of the
control rods in the reactor core, the K value
can be varied and any power level can be
achieved
 The power level must be within the design of the
reactor
Reactor Safety – Containment
 Radiation exposure, and its potential health risks,
are controlled by three levels of containment:
 Reactor vessel
 Contains the fuel and radioactive fission products
 Reactor building
 Acts as a second containment structure should the
reactor vessel rupture
 Prevents radioactive material from contaminating the
environment
 Location
 Reactor facilities are in remote locations
Reactor Safety – Radioactive
Materials
 Disposal of waste material
 Waste material contains long-lived, highly radioactive
isotopes
 Must be stored over long periods in ways that protect the
environment
 Present solution is sealing the waste in waterproof
containers and burying them in deep geological repositories
 Transportation of fuel and wastes
 Accidents during transportation could expose the public to
harmful levels of radiation
 Department of Energy requires crash tests and
manufacturers must demonstrate that their containers will
not rupture during high speed collisions
Nuclear Fusion
 Nuclear fusion occurs when two light
nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus
 The mass of the final nucleus is less
than the masses of the original nuclei
 This loss of mass is accompanied by a
release of energy
Fusion in the Sun
 All stars generate energy through fusion
 The Sun, along with about 90% of other stars,
fuses hydrogen
 Some stars fuse heavier elements
 Two conditions must be met before fusion
can occur in a star:
 The temperature must be high enough
 The density of the nuclei must be high enough to
ensure a high rate of collisions
 Proton-Proton Cycle
 The proton-proton
1
1H+11H→21 H + e + + ν
cycle is a series of
1H+ 1H→ 2 He + γ
1 2 3
three nuclear
reactions believed to Then
operate in the Sun
+
1H+ 2 He→ 2 He + e + ν
1 3 4
 Energy liberated is
primarily in the form or
of gamma rays,
positrons and 3
2 He + 3
2 He → 4
2 He + 1
1 H+ 1
1H
neutrinos
 Fusion Reactions, final
 Because high temperatures are
required to drive these reactions, they
are called thermonuclear fusion
reactions
 All of the reactions in the proton-proton
cycle are exothermic
 An overview of the cycle is that four
protons combine to form an alpha
particle and two positrons
Advantages of a Fusion
Reactor
 Inexpensive fuel source
 Water is the ultimate fuel source
 If deuterium is used as fuel, 0.12 g of it can
be extracted from 1 gal of water for about 4
cents
 Comparatively few radioactive by-
products are formed
Considerations for a Fusion
Reactor
 The proton-proton cycle is not feasible for a
fusion reactor
 The high temperature and density required

are not suitable for a fusion reactor

 The most promising reactions involve

deutrium and tritium

2
1 H  2
1 H  3
2 H  0 n Q  3.27 MeV
1

2
1 H  21H  31H  11H Q  403
. MeV
2
1 H  31H  42 He  01n Q  1759
. MeV
Considerations for a Fusion
Reactor, cont.
 Tritium is radioactive and must be
produced artificially
 The Coulomb repulsion between two
charged nuclei must be overcome
before they can fuse
Potential Energy Function
 The potential energy is
positive in the region r >
R, where the Coulomb
repulsive force
dominates
 It is negative where the
nuclear force dominates
 The problem is to give
the nuclei enough
kinetic energy to
overcome this repulsive
force
 Critical Ignition Temperature
 The temperature at
which the power
generation rate in any
fusion reaction exceeds
the lost rate is called
the critical ignition
temperature, Tignit
 The intersection of the
Pgen with the Plost line is
the Tignit
Requirements for Successful
Thermonuclear Reactor
 High temperature ~ 108 K
 Needed to give nuclei enough energy to overcome
Coulomb forces
 At these temperatures, the atoms are ionized,
forming a plasma
 Plasma ion density, n
 The number of ions present
 Plasma confinement time, τ
 The time interval during which energy injected into
the plasma remains in the plasma
 Lawson’s Criteria
 Lawson’s criteria states
that a net power output
in a fusion reactor is
possible under the
following conditions
 nτ ≥ 1014 s/cm3 for
deuterium-tritium
 nτ ≥ 1016 s/cm3 for
deuterium-deuterium
 These are the minima

on the curves
 Requirements, Summary
 The plasma temperature must be very high
 To meet Lawson’s criterion, the product nτ
must be large
 For a given value of n, the probability of fusion
between two particles increases as τ increases
 For a given value of τ, the collision rate increases as n
increases
 Confinement is still a problem
Confinement Techniques
 Magnetic confinement
 Uses magnetic fields to confine the plasma
 Inertial confinement
 Particles’ inertia keeps them confined very
close to their initial positions
 Magnetic Confinement
 One magnetic confinement
device is called a tokamak
 Two magnetic fields confine
the plasma inside the donut
 A strong magnetic field is
produced in the windings
 A weak magnetic field is
produced by the toroidal
current
 The field lines are helical,
they spiral around the
plasma, and prevent it from
touching the wall of the
vacuum chamber
Fusion Reactors Using
Magnetic Confinement
 TFTR – Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor
 Close to values required by Lawson criterion
 NSTX – National Spherical Torus Experiment
 Produces a spherical plasma with a hole in the center
 Is able to confine the plasma with a high pressure
 ITER – International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor
 An international collaboration involving four major
fusion programs is working on building this reactor
 It will address remaining technological and scientific
issues concerning the feasibility of fusion power
Inertial Confinement
 Uses a D-T target that has a very high
particle density
 Confinement time is very short
 Therefore, because of their own inertia, the
particles do not have a chance to move from their
initial positions
 Lawson’s criterion can be satisfied by
combining high particle density with a short
confinement time
 Laser Fusion
 Laser fusion is the most
common form of inertial
confinement
 A small D-T pellet is struck
simultaneously by several
focused, high intensity laser
beams
 This large input energy causes
the target surface to evaporate
 The third law reaction causes
an inward compression shock
wave
 This increases the temperature
Fusion Reactors Using Inertial
Confinement
 Omega facility
 University of Rochester (NY)
 Focuses 24 laser beams on the target
 Nova facility
 Lawrence Livermore National Lab (CA)
 Focuses 10 laser beams on the target
 Has achieved nτ ≈ 5 x 1014 s/cm3
Fusion Reactor Design –
Energy
 In the D-T reaction,
the alpha particle
carries 20% of the
energy and the
neutron carries 80%
 The neutrons are
about 14 MeV
Active Figure 45.14

(SLIDESHOW MODE ONLY)

Fusion Reactor Design,
Particles
 The alpha particles are primarily absorbed by
the plasma, increasing the plasma’s
temperature
 The neutrons are absorbed by the
surrounding blanket of material where their
energy is extracted and used to generate
electric power
 One scheme is to use molten lithium to
capture the neutrons
 The lithium goes to a heat-exchange loop and
eventually produces steam to drive turbines
Fusion Reactor Design,
Diagram
Some Advantages of Fusion
 Low cost and abundance of fuel
 Deuterium
 Impossibility of runaway accidents
 Decreased radiation hazards
Some Anticipated Problems
with Fusion
 Scarcity of lithium
 Limited supply of helium
 Helium is needed for cooling the
superconducting magnets used to produce
the confinement fields
 Structural damage and induced
radiation from the neutron
bombardment
Radiation Damage
 Radiation absorbed by matter can
cause damage
 The degree and type of damage
depend on many factors
 Type and energy of the radiation
 Properties of the absorbing matter
Radiation Damage, cont.
 Radiation damage in the metals used in the
reactors comes from neutron bombardment
 They can be weakened by high fluxes of energetic
neutrons producing metal fatigue
 The damage is in the form of atomic
displacements, often resulting in major changes in
the properties of the material
 Radiation damage in biological organisms is
primarily due to ionization effects in cells
 Ionization disrupts the normal functioning of the
cell
Types of Damage in Cells
 Somatic damage is radiation damage to
any cells except reproductive ones
 Can lead to cancer at high radiation levels
 Can seriously alter the characteristics of
specific organisms
 Genetic damage affects only
reproductive cells
 Can lead to defective offspring
Damage Dependence on
Penetration
 Damage caused by radiation also depends on
the radiation’s penetrating power
 Alpha particles cause extensive damage, but
penetrate only to a shallow depth

Due to their charge, they will have a strong interaction
with other charged particles
 Neutrons do not interact with material and so
penetrate deeper, causing significant damage
 Gamma rays can cause severe damage, but often
pass through the material without interaction
Units of Radiation Exposure
 The roentgen (R) is defined as
 That amount of ionizing radiation that produces an
electric charge of 3.33 x 10-10 C in 1 cm3 of air
under standard conditions
 Equivalently, that amount of radiation that
increases the energy of 1 kg of air by 8.76 x 10-3 J
 One rad (radiation absorbed dose)
 That amount of radiation that increases the energy
of 1 kg of absorbing material by 1 x 10-2 J
 More Units
 The RBE (relative biological effectiveness)
 The number of rads of x-radiation or gamma
radiation that produces the same biological
damage as 1 rad of the radiation being used
 Accounts for type of particle which the rad itself
does not
 The rem (radiation equivalent in man)
 Defined as the product of the dose in rad and the
RBE factor

Dose in rem = dose in rad x RBE
RBE Factors, A Sample
RBE Factors, Notes
 The values given for RBE factors are
only approximate
 They vary with particle energy and with the
form of damage
 The RBE factor should be used as only
a first-approximation guide to the actual
effects of radiation
Radiation Levels
 Natural sources – rocks and soil, cosmic rays
 Called background radiation
 About 0.13 rem/yr
 Upper limit suggested by US government
 0.50 rem/yr
 Excludes background
 Occupational
 5 rem/yr for whole-body radiation
 Certain body parts can withstand higher levels
 Ingestion or inhalation is most dangerous
Radiation Levels, cont.
 50% mortality rate
 About 50% of the people exposed to a
dose of 400 to 500 rem will die
 New SI units of radiation dosages
 The gray (Gy) replaces the rad
 The sievert (Sv) replaces the rem
SI Units, Table
Radiation Detectors,
Introduction
 Radiation detectors exploit the interactions
between particles and matter to allow a
measurement of the particles’ characteristics
 Things that can be measured include:
 Energy
 Momentum
 Charge
 Existence
Early Detectors
 Photographic emulsion
 The path of the particle corresponds to
points at which chemical changes in the
emulsion have occurred
 Cloud chamber
 Contains a gas that has been supercooled
 Energetic particles ionize the gas along the
particles’ paths
Early Detectors, Cont.
 Bubble chamber
 Uses a liquid
maintained near its
boiling point
 Ions produced by
incoming charged
particles leave
bubble tracks
 The picture is an
artificially colored
bubble chamber
photograph
 Contemporary Detectors
 Ion chamber
 Electron-ion pairs are
generated as radiation
passes through a gas and
produces an electric signal
 The current is proportional
to the number of pairs
produced
 A proportional counter is
an ion chamber that detects
the presence of the particle
and measures its energy
 Geiger Counter
 A Geiger counter is the
most common form of an ion
chamber used to detect
radiation
 When a gamma ray or
particle enters the thin
window, the gas is ionized
 The released electrons
trigger a current pulse
 The current is detected and
triggers a counter or speaker
Geiger Counter, cont.
 The Geiger counter easily detects the
presence of a particle
 The energy lost by the particle in the
counter is not proportional to the current
pulse produced
 Therefore, the Geiger counter cannot be
used to measure the energy of a particle
Other Detectors
 The semiconductor-diode detector
 A reverse-bias p-n junction
 As a particle passes through the junction, a brief
pulse of current is created and measured
 The scintillation counter
 Uses a solid or liquid material whose atoms are
easily excited by radiation
 The excited atoms emit photons as they return to
their ground state
 With a photomultiplier, the photons can be
converted into an electrical signal
Other Detectors, cont.
 Track detectors
 Various devices used to view the tracks or
paths of charged particles directly
 The energy and momentum of these
energetic particles are found from the
curvature of their path in a magnetic field of
known magnitude and direction
Other Detectors, Final
 Spark chamber
 Is a counting device that consists of an
array of conducting parallel plates and is
capable of recording a three-dimensional
track record
 Drift chamber
 A newer version of the spark chamber
 Has thousands of high-voltage wires
throughout the space of the detector
Applications of Radiation
 Tracing
 Radioactive particles can be used to trace
chemicals participating in various reactions

Example, 131I to test thyroid action

Also useful in agriculture
 Materials analysis
 Neutron activation analysis uses the fact that
when a material is irradiated with neutrons, nuclei
in the material absorb the neutrons and are
changed to different isotopes
Applications of Radiation, cont.
 Radiation therapy
 Radiation causes the most damage to
rapidly dividing cells
 Therefore, it is useful in cancer treatments
 Food preservation
 High levels of radiation can destroy or
incapacitate bacteria or mold spores