Lecture 1

Introduction to Electric Circuits

 Voltage
 Current
 Current flow
 Voltage Sources
 Voltmeter (Multimeter)

Lumped circuits.

Reference directions.

Kirchhof’s current law (KCL).

Kirchhof’s voltage law (KVL).

Wavelength and dimension of the circuit.

1
Introduction to Electric Circuits

Here we are going to remind what are:

•Voltage

•Current

•Current flow

•Voltage Sources

•Voltmeter (Multimeter)

2
What is Voltage?
V = “Electrical pressure” - measured in volts.

H2O

High Pressure Low Pressure

Figure
1.1 3
A battery in an electrical circuit
plays the same role as a pump in a
water system.

4
 What Produces Voltage?
V = “Electrical pressure”

Lab Power Supply

A Battery
9V
Solar Cell

1.5 V
Electric Power Plant

A few
Volts
Nerve Cell A few millivolts
13,500 V when activated by
a synapse 5
 Other Symbols Used for
Specific Voltage Sources

+
+
_
_
~
Battery Time-varying Solar Cell
source

. Generator These are all…

(power plant) Voltage Sources
Figure 1.2

6
 A Typical Voltage Source

Lab Power Supply

This supply goes up

The voltage is adjustable
to 10 V
via this knob

The red (+) and black (-)

terminals emulate the two The white terminal is
ends of a battery. connected to earth ground
via the third prong of the
power cord

Remember: A voltage is measured between two points 7

Measuring Voltages
We can measure voltage between
two points with a meter
•Set the meter to read
Voltage

• Connect the V of the +2.62

meter to power supply red
volts

• Connect COM (common)

of the meter to power supply
black
I COM V
• Read the Voltage
white

8
Exercise
The power supply is changed to 3.2 V.
What does the meter read?
What’s the answer?

Find out –3.2 V

Answer: –3.2 V

I COM V

9
What is “Ground”

“Ground” refers to the reference terminal to

which all other voltages are measured

V1 + V2 + V3 +
_ _ _

Point of Reference

Figure 1.3
10
 The earth is really just one big ground node.

Most people choose the earth as the

reference ground when a connection
to it is available.
V2 +
_

A ground connection to earth is often made

via the third prong of a power cord.

11
 Ground Symbol
Positive relative to ground

V1 + V2 + V3 +
_ _ _

V4 +
_

Figure 1.4
Negative relative to ground

12
 Voltage Relative to Ground
The white terminal is connected to earth ground
Connect the black terminal to ground

The red terminal is

positive with respect to
“ground”

13
Negative Polarity Relative to
Ground

The black terminal is

negative with respect to
ground.

14
 What is Current?
• Current is the flow of charge from a voltage source
• 1 Ampere (“Amp”) = Flow of 1 Coulomb/sec

+++

15
How Does Current Flow?
Current can only flow through conductors

Metal wires (conductors)

+++
Current
flow

16
When Does Current NOT Flow?
Current cannot flow through insulators
Plastic material (insulators)

+++
No current
flow

17
Note that Air is an Insulator
Current cannot flow through insulators

+++
Air
No current flow

That’s why a battery doesn’t

discharge if left on its own.

18
What is Current?

• Electricity flows when electrons travel through

a conductor.
• We call this flow “current.”
• Only some materials have free electrons inside.
glass
YES!
silver
Conductors: rubber
oil
copper
gold
NO! asphalt
fiberglass
aluminium porcelain
iron Insulators: ceramic
steel quartz
brass (dry) cotton
bronze No free electrons = No current (dry) paper
mercury (dry) wood
graphite plastic
dirty water air
concrete diamond
19
pure water
Curren
t

 Current is the amount of electric charge

(coulombs) flowing past a specific point in a
conductor over an interval of one second.
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

 Electron flow is from a lower potential

(voltage) to a higher potential (voltage).

e e e e
+ -
Wire

20
Current
For historical reasons, current is
conventionally thought to flow from the
positive to the negative potential in a
circuit.

21
Formal Definition of Current Flow

• Rate of flow of “positive” charge

• Measured in Coulombs per second of charge

• (It’s really the electrons flowing in the

opposite direction)

1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb of electrons flowing by per second

in the wire

22
Sign Convention for Current Flow
• Electrons carry negative charge

• Positive current flow is in opposite direction

- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

electron motion
positive current direction

23
Reference
Direction
Consider any two-terminal lumped element
A with terminals A and B as shown in Figure 1. It
may be a resistor, inductor or diode. To
i suggest this generally , we refer to the two-
terminal element as a branch.
branch
+ The reference direction for the voltage is
v indicated by the plus and minus symbols
located near terminals A and B. The reference
direction for current is indicated by the arrow.

B Given the reference direction for the voltage shown

in Fig. by convention the branch voltage v is positive at time
t ( that is, v(t)>0) whenever the electrical potential of
A at time t is larger than the electrical potential of B
at time t.
v(t ) = v A (t ) − vB (t ) (1.1)

Associated reference direction 24

Power Flow
i The current variable i is defined as positive
+ into the (+) terminal of the element
V “Passive” sign convention
If the physical current is positive
P=Vi Power flows into the element)

The current variable i is defined as positive

into the (+) terminal of the element
i
+
_ P=Vi
Here the physical current is negative
+ Power flows out of the source
V
25
 Lumped circuits
Lumped circuits are obtained by connecting lumped elements
Typical lumped elements are
•resistors,
•capacitors,
•inductors and
•transformers

The key properties associated with lumped elements is their

small size (compared to the wavelength corresponding to
their normal frequency of operation).

From the more general electromagnetic field point of view,

lumped elements are point singularities; that is they have
negligible physical dimensions.
26
Network Topology
An interconnected set of electrical
components is called a network.

• Each component of a network is called

an element.
• Elements are connected by wires.

27
Nodes and Branches
• The interconnections between wires are
called nodes.
• The wire paths between nodes are called
branches.

branches

nodes

28
Nodes Connected by Wires Only
• Two or more nodes connected just by
wires can be considered as one single node.

A single node One big node

Group of nodes
Oneconnected
big node only by wires

This network as three nodes

29
Current Flow
• Current can flow through the branches of a network.

• The direction of current flow is indicated by an arrow.

+
_

•Note: The voltage sources in the network drive the flow

of current through its branches. (More on this idea later.)
30
Every Current has a Value and a Direction

• The direction is defined by the person drawing the network.

• The value is determined by the properties of the circuit.

i1
_
+
_ A
+
Example:
The arrow above defines “positive” current flow i1 as downward in branch A.
Suppose that 4 mA of current flows physically downward in branch A. Then i1 = 4 mA.

Converse:
Suppose that 4 mA of current flows physically upward in branch A. Then i1 = – 4 mA.
31
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• The sum of currents flowing into a node
must be balanced by the sum of currents
flowing out of the node.

node
i1
i2 i3
Gustav Kirchoff
was an 18th
century German
mathematician

∑i = 0
i1 flows into the node
i2 flows out of the node
i3 flows out of the node
i1 = i2 + i3 (1.2)
32
Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
i 1 = i 2 + i3

• This equation can also be written in the following form:

i 1 – i2 – i 3 = 0

i1 node

i2 i3

A formal statement of Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

The sum of all the currents entering a node is zero.

(i2 and i3 leave the node, hence currents –i2 and –i3 enter the node.)
33
Example 1: Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
Q: How much is the current Io ?

A: io = 2.5 mA + 4 mA = 6.5 mA

2.5 mA
4 mA

io
i4 i2 i3

• Note that a “node” need not be a discrete point

• The dotted circle is a node with 2.5 mA entering
• Hence i2 = 2.5 mA exits the “node”.
Similarly, i3 = 4 mA.
• From KCL, i4 = i2 + i3 = 6.5 mA, and Io = i4 34
Example 2: Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
Q: How much are the currents i1 and i2 ?

A: i2 = 10 mA – 3 mA = 7 mA
i1 = 10 mA + 4 mA = 14 mA

10 mA
node
i1 3 mA i2
4 mA

+
_

4 mA + 3 mA + 7 mA = 14 mA

35
Sometimes Kirchhoff’s Current Law is
abbreviated just by

KCL

Review: Different ways to state KCL:

 The sum of all currents entering a node must be zero.

 The net current entering a node must be zero.

 Whatever flows into a node must come out.

more to follow… 36
General View of Networks
A network is an interconnection of elements via nodes and branches
There are many kinds of networks:

Elements Network Connection Paths

•Electrical components Circuit Wires

•Computers Internet Fiber Optics

•Organs Circulatory Blood Vessels

System

Kirchoff’s Current Law applies to all these kinds of networks!

37
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law applies to all types of networks
Fiber optic network (I is light intensity)

I1 I1 I2

“KCL” for light:

I1 = I2 + I3

I3
38
Kirchhoff’s Current Law applies to all types of networks
Human Blood Vessels (f is blood flow rate)

f2
f1 Organ

f1

“KCL” for blood flow:

f 1 = f 2 + f3
f3

39
Voltage
• Voltages are measured across the branches of a network,
from one node to another.
• The direction of a voltage is indicated by + and – signs.

+ v2 –
+ + +
v1 +
_ v3 v4
– – –

• Remember: The voltage sources in the network drive

the flow of current through the branches.
40
 Every Voltage has a Value and a Polarity
• The polarity is defined by the person drawing the network.

• The value is determined by the properties of the circuit.

_ +
+
_ v3
+ –
Example: 2

The plus and minus signs above define the polarity of v3 as “positive” from node 1 to node 2.
Suppose that +5 V appears physically from node 1 to node 2 . Then v3 = 5 V.
Converse:
Suppose that +5 V appears physically from node 2 to node 1 . Then v3 = –5 V.
41
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
The voltage measured between any two nodes
does not depend of the path taken.

voltage

+ v2 – voltage
+ + +
v1 +
_
voltage v3 v4
– – –

Example of KVL: v1= v2 + v3

Similarly: v 1= v 2 + v 4
and: v 3= v 4

42
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
v1 = v2 + v3 (1.3)

• This equation can also be written in the following form:

–v1 + v2 + v3 = 0

+ v2 –
+ + +
v1 +
_ v3 v4
– – –

A formal statement of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

The sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero.

43
Using the Formal Definition of KVL
“The sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero.”
• Define an arrow direction around a closed loop.
• Sum the voltages as the are encountered in going around the loop.
• If the arrow first encounters a plus sign, enter that voltage with a
(+) into the KVL equation.

• If the arrow first encounters a minus sign, enter that voltage with a
(–) into the KVL equation.

+ v2 –
+ + +
v1 +
_ v3 v4
– – –

For the arrow shown above:

–v1 + v2 + v3 = 0
For the outer arrow: –v4 – v2 + v1 = 0 44
Example 1: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
Q: How much is the voltage Vo ?

A: Vo = 3.1 V + 6.8 V

+ 3.1V –
+ +
+ 6.8 V v4
_ Vo
– _

Q: How much is the voltage v4 ?

A: v4 = 6.8 V

45
 Example 2: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
Q: If v1 = 10 V and v5 = 2 V, what are v2, v3, and v4?

A: v2 = 10 V
v3 = 10 V – 2 V = 8 V
v4 = 2 V
+ v3 –

+ + + +
v1 = 10 V + v2 v4 v5 = 2 V
_
–
– – –

46
Wavelength and Dimension of the Circuit
What happens when the dimensions of a circuit become
comparable to or even larger than the wavelength associated
with the highest frequencies of interest?
Let d be the largest dimension of the circuit, c the velocity of
propagation of electromagnetic waves, λ the wavelength of
the highest frequency of interest, and f the frequency. The
condition states that
d is of the order of a larger than λ (1.4)

Now τ = d / c
Is the time required for electromagnetic
waves
propagate from one endtoof the circuit to the other.
Since fλ = c,
λ / c = 1 / f =where
T T is the period of the highest frequency of interes
τ is of the order of a larger than T (1.5
)
47
 Thus, recalling the remarks concerning the applicability of
KCL and KVL at high frequencies, we may say that KCL and
KVL hold for any lumped circuit as long as the propagation
time of electromagnetic waves through the medium
surrounding the circuit is negligible small compared with the
period of the highest frequency of interest.
Example

Let us consider a dipole antenna of an FM broadcast receiver

and the 300 Ω transmission line that connects it to the
receiver.
The transmission line
- +A
consists of two parallel
A C
Transmission line copper wires that are held
C at a constant distance from
+v B one another by simple
- insulating plastic.
B
The transmission line is infinitely long to the
right.

48
Summary

1. Kirchhoff’s laws and the lumped-element model of a

circuit are valid provided that the largest physical
dimension of a circuit is small compared with the
wavelength corresponding to the highest frequency under
consideration
1. KCL states that for any lumped electric circuit, for any of
its nodes, and at any time, the algebraic sum of all the
branch currents leaving the node is zero

1. KVL states that for any lumped electric circuit, for any of
its loops, and at any time, the algebraic sum of all the
∑ vi = 0loop is zero
branch voltages around the
loop

1. Kirchhoff’s laws are linear constraints on the branch

voltages and branch currents. Furthermore, they are
independent of the nature of the elements 49