Standards of measurement

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter student should be able to:

Define the term Metrology as applied to engineering industry and state its significance in modern industries;

Explain the application areas of metrology;

Explain the need of standards of measurements in the modern industrial system; Define inspection and explain its need in industries; Describe the procedure for deriving end standards from line standards; List the factors that affect the accuracy of the standard and analyze them; Explain the role of standardization and standardizing organizations in an industrial country.
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Measuring Length

Directly: Fingers, hand widths, cubits, strides, chains;

Rulers, yardsticks, tape measures; Calipers, micrometers, comparators;

Mileposts, odometers, GPS.

Measuring Length

Indirectly

Using Trigonometry

Pythagorean relationships
Law of cosines
a2+b2=c2 a=c sin a

b=c cos a
a2= b2 + c2 2bc(cos a) b2= a2 + c2 2ac(cos b) a=b tan a

c2= a2 + b2 2ab(cos q)
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Standard of length: International Prototype Meter

Platinum-Irridium alloy @ 0o C; (90% Platinum, 10% Irridium); Tresca Crosssection.

Definitions of the meter Over the years

Year 1793 Definition

1 / 10 000, 000 of the distance from the pole to the equator.

1795 Provisional meter bar constructed in brass. 1799 Definitive prototype meter bars constructed in platinum. 1889 1906 International prototype meter bar in platinum-iridium, cross-section X.

1 000, 000 / 0.643 846 96 wavelengths in air of the red line of the cadmium spectrum.

1 650 763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the radiation 1960 corresponding to the transition between levels 2p10 and 5d5 of the krypton 86 atom.

1983

Length traveled by light in vacuum during 1/299 792 458 of a second.

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Imperial Standard Yard

Standard lengths on the wall of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London 1 yard (3 feet), 2 feet, 1 foot, 6 inches (1/2 foot), and 3 inches. The separation of the inside faces of the markers is exact at an ambient temperature of 60 F (16 C) and a rod of the correct measure, resting on the pins, will fit snugly between them.
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Imperial standards of length 1876 in Trafalgar Square, London.

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Airy points
Airy Points are used for precision measurement (metrology) to support a length standard in such a way as to minimize bending or droop. The points are symmetrically arranged around the centre of the length standard and are separated by a distance equal to 5/9ths of the total length of the measuring device. Airy points are normally identified by inscribed marks or lines. For example, a 450 mm length gauge would have an Airy point separation of 450 mm times 5/9 = 250 mm. A line or pair of lines would be marked onto the gauge 100 mm in from each end. Supporting the artifact at these points ensures that the calibrated length is preserved. If the length gauge is not supported at the Airy points, the measurement uncertainty is increased.
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Airy points

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Gauge Block
The length of the gauge block is defined at standard reference conditions: temperature = 20 C (68 F ) barometric pressure = 101,325 Pa (1 atmosphere) water vapor pressure = 1,333 Pa (10 mm of mercury) CO2 content of air = 0.03%.

Of these conditions only the temperature has a measurable effect on the physical length of the block. The other conditions are needed because the primary measurement of gauge block length is a comparison with the wavelength of light; For standard light sources the frequency of the light is constant, but the wavelength is dependent on the temperature, pressure, humidity, and CO2 content of the air.

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Gauge Block Length definition

The length of a gauge block is defined as the perpendicular distance from a gauging point on one end of the block to an auxiliary true plane wrung to the other end of the block.

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 The ASME standard defines the following properties in the Gauge Block standards for gauges up to 500 mm long:

Length Parallelism Flatness Surface finish Tolerance Grade

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Slip Gauge Tolerance Grades

Gauge blocks are made in 4 tolerance grades in ASME standard: Workshop or measurement (Grade 3) Inspection of Quality control Gauges (Grade 2) Calibration (Grade 1) Master Calibration Gauges (Grade 0.5)

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Tolerance Grades for Metric Blocks (m)

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Thermal Expansion of 100 mm blocks of various materials from 20 C to 25 C

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Different Types of Gauge Blocks

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Length Bar and Long Gauge Block Calibration

Workshop Inspection Calibration Reference

II I 0 00

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Measuring instruments

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Ruler / Tape

Least Precise

Accuracy of 1/16 (.0625)

Used on large items and non-precision work Available in various lengths

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Calipers

Accuracy of 0.1 , .01, 0.001 mm

Used on precision jobs Measures Outside Diameters, Inside Diameters, And Depths

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Parts of the Calipers

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The Vernier Caliper

Readline

2 * 1.000 = 2.000 2 * 0.100 = 0.200 3 * 0.025 = 0.075 + 10 * 0.001 = 0.010 2.285

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Different Types of Calipers

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Digital Vernier Caliper

The Vernier Caliper is a precision instrument that can be used to measure internal and external distances extremely accurately. The example shown below is a digital Vernier caliper as the distances are read from a LCD display. The most important parts have been labelled. Digital Vernier calipers are easier to use as the measurement is clearly displayed and also, by pressing the inch/mm button the distance can be read as metric or imperial.

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Measuring internal distances

Measuring external distances

Measuring depths

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Micrometer

A micrometer , sometimes known as a micrometer screw gauge, is a device used widely in mechanical engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades for precision measurement, along with other metrological instruments such as dial calipers and vernier calipers. Micrometers are often, but not always, in the form of calipers.

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Micrometer

Most accurate

Accuracy up to 0.005 mm

Available in various sizes, from 0 25 , 25 50 , 50 75, Used to measure Outside Diameters

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Parts of a Micrometer
spindlesleeve
thimble

anvil

frame

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Micrometer

Reading Line

Divisions of 0.025 Divisions of 0.001 Divisions of 0.100

Resolution is 0.001
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How to read a micrometer

Vernier scale ***Resolution 0.0001 ***

Reading B
2 x 0.1000 = 0.2000 2 x 0.0250 = 0.0500 Final Reading = 0.2500

Reading C
2 x 0.1000 = 0.2000 2 x 0.0250 = 0.0500 7 x 0.0001 = 0.0007 Final Reading = 0.2507
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Reading A
2 x 0.1000 = 0.2000 3 x 0.0250 = 0.0750 24 x 0.0010 = 0.0240 1 x 0.0001 = 0.0001 Final Reading = 0.2991

Reading B
x 0.1000 = 0.3000 x 0.0250 = 0.0000 x 0.0010 = 0.0000 x 0.0001 = 0.0001 Final Reading = 0.3001
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3 0 0 1

Digital Calipers and Micrometers

Serves the same purposes as conventional Calipers and micrometers; Easier to read due to digital read-out;

Usually more expensive.

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Micrometer stand

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Degree Protractor

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Spring Caliper and divider

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Inside Calipers / Outside caliper

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Feeler Gauge

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Radius Gauge

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Depth gauge

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Twist Drill Gauge

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Centre Gauge

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Steel Squares

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V Blocks - Quadruple

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V-Blocks

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Dial Comparator Stand

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Bore Gauge

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Sine Bars

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Precision Angle Block (Adjustable Angle Square)

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