ENDOCRINE PHYSIOLOGY

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Types of Regulatory Molecules
 Hormone – A regulatory chemical secreted
into the blood by an endocrine gland, or an
organ exhibiting endocrine function.
 Target Cells respond to hormone
 Neurohormone – A chemical messenger secreted
by neuron into the blood rather than the synaptic
cleft.
 Paracrine - regulatory molecules work
without being transmitted by the blood – not
endocrine
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HORMONES

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PARACRINE

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NEUROHORMONES

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Types of hormones

within the membrane, binds to the receptors

on the outside of membrane; its effects are
the most rapid of all the hormones

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 receptor response as protein hormones
i. Epinepherine
ii. Norepinepherine
iii. Thyroid hormones
iv. Melatonin
c. Steroid hormones – binds to the
intracellular receptors; slow actions
i. Gonadal hormones
Estrogen, progesterone, androgens .1
ii. Adrenal hormones
Glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids .1
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 RECEPTORS
 RECEPTORS:
 1. Surface receptors
 a. Channel linked
 b. G protein
 c. Enzyme linked
 2. Intracellular receptors
 a. Cytoplasmic
 b. Nuclear

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Hormones are Extremely Powerful

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Hormones That Enter Cells
 Fat soluble hormones pass through the target
cell’s plasma membrane and bind to
intracellular receptor proteins.
 hormone receptor complex then binds to specific
regions of DNA
 activate genes and regulate target cells
 Steroid hormones binds cytoplasmic receptors
 Thyroid hormone binds nuclear receptors

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Steroid Hormone Action

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Hormones That Do Not Enter
Cells
 Hormones that are too large or too polar to
cross plasma membranes include all of the
peptide and glycoprotein hormones, as well
as catecholamine hormones epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
 bind to receptor proteins located on the outer
surface of the plasma membrane
 cyclic AMP second-messenger system
 IP3/CA++ second-messenger system

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Action of Epinephrine on a
Liver Cell 1. Epinephrine is water soluble
and needs to bind to specific
receptor proteins on cell surface.
2. Acting through intermediary G
proteins the hormone bound
receptor activates the enzyme
adenenyl cyclase which converts
ATP to cAMP
3. Cyclic AMP performs as a
2ndary messenger and activates
protein kinase-A an enzyme that
was previously inactive
4. Protein kinase–A
phosphorylates and activates the
enzyme phosphorylase which
catalyses the hydrolysis of glycogen
into glucose.
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IP3/CA++ Second-Messenger System
1. The hormone epinephrine
binds to specific receptor
proteins on the cell surface.
2. Acting through G- proteins,
the hormone-bound receptor
activates the enzyme
phospholipase C, which converts
membrane phospholipids into
inositol triphosphate (IP3)

3. IP3 diffuses thru the cytoplasm

and binds to receptors on the
endoplasmic reticulum
4. The binding of IP3 to the
receptor stimulates the
endoplasmic reticulum to release
Ca++ into the cytoplasm
5. Some of the released Ca++ binds to the receptor protein called calmodulin
6. The Ca++/Calmodulin complex activates other intracellular proteins – producing the 17
hormone effects 17
Endocrine Glands and
Hormones
 Neural and endocrine interactions
 Endocrine system also interacts and cooperates with the
nervous system to regulate the activities of the other organ
systems of the body.
 Secretory activity of many endocrine glands controlled by
nervous system like
 Adrenal medulla, posterior pituitary, and pineal gland

 major site for neural regulation is the brain’s regulation of the

anterior pituitary by the hypothalmus
However many are not under neural control

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 Pituitary & all Hormones are Under the
Control of the Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus

RF Hormone

Anterior Pituitary Posterior Pituitary

SH Hormone

Target Organs Target Organs

RF = Releasing Factor SH = Stimulating Hormone

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Negative Feedback Inhibition

Hormones secreted by some endocrine glands feed back to inhibit

the secretion of hypothalamic releasing hormones and anterior 21
pituitary hormones 21
Feedback control

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Human Endocrine System
major glands

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 Anterior Pituitary Gland
 Develops from a pouch of epithelial tissue that pinches off the roof of the
embryo’s mouth.
 produces the hormones it secretes:
 growth hormone (GH) stimulates muscles and bones to grow
 adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) regulates corticosteroid secretion
 thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the production of thyroxin by
thyroid gland
 luteinizing hormone (LH) ovulation and testosterone production in testes
 follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) develops ovarian follicle and sperm in
males
 prolactin (PRL) stimulates mammary glands to produce milk
 melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) synthesis and dispersion of melanin
pigment

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 Anterior Pituitary Gland
 Hypothalamic control of anterior pituitary gland
secretion
 Neurons in the hypothalamus secrete releasing
hormones and inhibiting hormones into blood
capillaries at the base of the hypothalamus.
 Each hormone delivered by hypothalamohypophysial portal
system regulates secretion or inhibition of a specific
anterior pituitary hormone.

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Hypothalamic Hormones:

Gondotropin RF Corticotropin RF Thyrotropin RF Growth Hor RF Prolactin RF

(CRF)

Pituitary Hormones:

Follicle SH & Adrenocorticoptropin Thyrotropin SH Growth Prolactin

Hormone (ACTH) Hormone

Lutenizing Hor.

Target Gland or Structure:

Cells of body Bones, breasts

Ovaries & Testes Adrenal Gland Thyroid Gland & cells of body
(androgens, estrogen) (cortisol) (thyroxine) 27
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 Anterior pituitary cells and hormones

Cell type Pituitary Product Target

population
Corticotroph 15-20% ACTH Adrenal gland
β-lipotropin Adipocytes
MSH Melanocytes
Thyrotroph 3-5% TSH Thyroid gland
Gonadotroph 10-15% LH, FSH Gonads
Somatotroph 40-50% GH All tissues, liver
Lactotroph 10-15% PRL Breasts
gonads
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What do these anterior
?pituitary hormones do
Growth Hormone:
 stimulates cells to grow and GH influences bone
divide growth via
 increases amino acid
somatomedin:
transport rate and protein GH in blood
synthesis →
GH arrives in liver
 increases fat metabolism
→
liver secretes somatomedin
Typically, GH is secreted
during sleep. cartilage divides →
GH secretion increases when bones grow! →
malnourished

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Problems with GH

 Too much GH in children leads to

gigantism
 Too much GH in adults leads to
acromegaly
 Too little GH in children leads to dwarfism

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 Other Anterior Pituitary
Hormone Functions
ACTH: LH & FSH:
 works on the cortex of the  LH in females and in males leads
adrenal gland, influencing to sex hormone secretion
the release of cortisol  FSH in females causes growth
 stress can increase CRH and development of egg cell-
secretion which will containing follicles in the ovary,
increase ACTH secretion and causes estrogen secretion
 negative feedback when  FSH in males stimulates sperm
adrenal cortex hormones production
in blood decrease CRH  both hormones are regulated by
secretion GnRH, which is not significant in
concentration until puberty

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More Anterior Pituitary
Hormone Functions
PRL:
 In females, PRL promotes
TSH:
lactation  works on thyroid gland to
cause secretion of hormones
 PRL decreases LH
secretion (note that too  works on thyroid gland to
much PRL cause sterility) affect its growth (too much
TSH leads to a goiter)
 Controlled by both PRH and
PIH  negative feedback via thyroid
hormones in blood
 stress or cold temperatures
can change TSH secretion

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Posterior Pituitary Gland
 Pituitary
gland hangs by a stalk from the
hypothalamus of the brain.
 anterior pituitary - appears glandular
 posterior pituitary - appears fibrous
 Neurons produce antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
and oxytocin.
 stored in, and released from, the posterior
pituitary gland in response to neural stimulation
from the hypothalamus
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 Function of Posterior Pituitary
Lobe Hormones
ADH: OT:
 as an “antidiuretic,” ADH  In females, contracts the
decreases urine formation by uterine wall smooth
having kidneys conserve water muscles
 also can contract smooth muscle  In females, helps to eject
cells, as found in blood vessels-- milk when lactating
this causes an increase in blood
pressure
 ADH release triggered by
osmoreceptors and inhibited by
stretch receptors in blood
vessels
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Effects of ADH

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Major Pituitary Gland
Hormones

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 The Thyroid Gland
Structure: This bi-lobed gland contains many follicles. A follicle is
a group of cells encircling a lumen. The lumen contains material
called colloid (a glycoprotein) within it. As hormones are produced
by the cells, the hormones are either released into the colloid or
directly into the blood.
There are also extra
follicular hormone-secreting cells, called C cells. These are found
between lumina.
Hormones Produced:
 Thyroxine (T4) made in follicle
 Triiodotyronine (T3) made in follicle
 Calcitonin made by C cells 37
Regulation of Thyroxine
Secretion

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...About the Thyroid Hormones

T3 and T4: Calcitonin:

 Function: metabolism regulation  Function: decrease blood
(break down carbohydrates and calcium levels and blood
fats, synthesize proteins) phosphate levels (by
 Can only be made by follicular helping them get
cells when iodides are available deposited in bone, and by
stimulating excretion of
 Somewhat hydrophobic and get them by kidneys)
carried by proteins in the blood.
 Controlled by blood
 Controlled by anterior pituitary calcium levels
lobe TSH
 T3 more effective, T4 more
abundant
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 Problems with the Thyroid
Gland
Hyperthyroidism:
 high metabolic rate, hyperactivity, sensitivity to heat,
protruding eyes
 Grave’s disease: when hyperthyroidism is due to an
autoimmune problem.
Hypothyroidism:
 in the adult: low metabolic rate, sensitivity to cold,
sluggishness
 in an infant: cretinism-- stunted growth, mental retardation,
abnormal bone formation
 Hashimoto’s disease: when hypothyroidism is due to an
autoimmune problem (autoantibodies attack and destroy
follicular cells)
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 Thyroid and Parathyroid
Glands
 Parathyroid gland and calcium homeostasis

 four small glands attached to the thyroid

 produces parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 one of the essential hormones for survival
 stimulates osteoclasts in bone to dissolve calcium phosphate
crystals and release Ca++ into the blood

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Regulation of Blood Calcium
Levels

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Adrenal Glands

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The Adrenal Medulla
Acts very much like a part of the sympathetic nervous
system (fight or flight)
Secretes two amines:
 norepinephrine (20%)

 epinephrine (80%)

Stimulated by preganglionic neurons directly, so

controlled by the hypothalamus as if part of the
autonomic nervous system, NOT by tropic
hormones

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 Adrenal Glands
 Adrenal cortex
 Hormones from adrenal cortex are collectively referred
to as corticosteroids.
 Cortisol maintains glucose homeostasis, and modulates
some aspects of the immune response.
 Aldosterone stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb Na+ and
secrete K+ into the urine.

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More about Adrenal Cortex Hormones
Aldosterone: Cortisol:
Considered a mineralocorticoid Considered a glucocorticoid
Regulates “mineral electrolyte” Overall effect of cortisol:
levels in the blood (for example:  Helps to keep blood glucose
Na+ and K+ ions)
concentration within a normal
How is aldosterone controlled? range between meals
 blood plasma ion
Specific actions of cortisol:
concentrations affect its  increases amino acid
secretion directly (but not
concentration in the blood (by
always strongly)
inhibiting protein synthesis in
 kidney secretes renin in
select tissues)
response to altered electrolyte  promotes use of fat for energy
levels, which triggers
production in our bodies (rather
angiotensin activation in the
than glucose)
blood, which leads to
 stimulates the liver to synthesize
aldosterone secretion
 ACTH from the anterior
glucose (not from carbohydrates,
but from amino acids and 47
pituitary can cause
 The Pancreas
 This gland has both endocrine and exocrine
functions… (exocrine is for digestion)
 The endocrine portion of the gland contains
three types of cells, each making a different
hormone, arranged into groups called Islets of
Langerhans
 alpha cells: secrete glucagon
 beta cells: secrete insulin
 delta cells: secrete SS (somatostatin)
 Note that these pancreatic hormones are
involved in blood glucose regulation, and
problems with them can lead to diabetes.
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Blood Glucose Regulation by the
Pancreas Insulin:
Glucagon: It works on the liver to
It works on the liver to cause remove glucose from the
the production of glucose blood via:
via:  making glycogen
 glycogenolysis  preventing
 gluconeogenesis gluconeogenesis
It is regulated by blood  increasing glucose
transport into cells
glucose levels directly:
 secreted when blood glucose It is also regulated by blood
drops (before next meal) glucose levels directly
Prevents hypoglycemia Prevents hyperglycemia

Note: glucagon and insulin work in opposition, and

their combined effects control blood glucose 49
Antagonistic Actions of Insulin
and Glucagon

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Gonads & Hormones

LH & FSH

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Pineal Gland
Secretes only one hormone: melatonin
Involved in your circadian rhythm (your
recognition of day and night times):
 melatonin secretion decreases in the day
 melatonin secretion increases at night
Melatonin is also involved in longer rhythms,
like monthly and seasonal… and is thought
to be involved in the female menstrual cycle
and maybe in the onset of puberty
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