Deuteron - Square Well Potential

1 Alpha Decay and Gamow Theory

Alpha decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits
an alpha particle, consisting of two protons and two neutrons (essentially a
helium-4 nucleus, 42 He), thereby reducing the atomic number by 2 and the
mass number by 4. This process is observed in heavy nuclei, such as uranium
or thorium, where the Coulomb repulsion between protons overcomes the
nuclear binding energy. The emitted alpha particle typically has a kinetic
energy of a few MeV (mega-electron volts). In this section, we explore the
quantum mechanical explanation of alpha decay through the Gamow theory,
which treats the process as a quantum tunneling phenomenon.

1.1 Gamow Theory of Alpha Decay

In classical physics, alpha decay poses a paradox: the alpha particle does
not possess sufficient energy to overcome the Coulomb potential barrier sur-
rounding the nucleus. However, George Gamow (and independently Ronald
Gurney and Edward Condon) resolved this in 1928 by applying quantum
mechanics. They proposed that the alpha particle, pre-formed within the
nucleus, escapes via quantum tunneling through the potential barrier. The
decay rate depends on the probability of this tunneling event, which we derive
below.

1.1.1 Potential Energy Model

Consider a nucleus of charge Ze (where Z is the atomic number of the daugh-
ter nucleus and e is the elementary charge) and an alpha particle with charge
2e. Inside the nucleus, the alpha particle experiences a strong nuclear force,
approximated as a potential well. Outside the nucleus, beyond its radius
R, the interaction is dominated by the repulsive Coulomb potential. The
potential energy V (r) as a function of radial distance r from the center of

1
the nucleus can be modeled as:
(
−V0 for r < R (nuclear potential well),
V (r) = 2Ze2
4πϵ0 r
for r ≥ R (Coulomb repulsion),

where V0 > 0 is the depth of the nuclear potential well, and ϵ0 is the permit-
tivity of free space. The alpha particle has a kinetic energy E (typically 4–9
2Ze2
MeV), which is less than the height of the Coulomb barrier Vb = 4πϵ 0R
(on
the order of 20–30 MeV for heavy nuclei). Classically, escape is impossible,
but quantum mechanically, the particle can tunnel through the barrier.

1.1.2 Quantum Tunneling and Transmission Probability

In quantum mechanics, the alpha particle is described by a wave function
ψ(r), and its probability of tunneling through the barrier is determined by
solving the Schrödinger equation. For simplicity, we use the one-dimensional
WKB (Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin) approximation, which is suitable for a
slowly varying potential. The radial part of the Schrödinger equation in
spherical coordinates is complex, but the tunneling probability can be ap-
proximated by considering the barrier penetration factor.
The WKB transmission probability T through a potential barrier from
r = R to the classical turning point r = b, where V (b) = E, is given by:

T ≈ e−2G ,

where G is the Gamow factor:

Z br
2µ
G= [V (r) − E] dr,
R ℏ2

with µ as the reduced mass of the alpha particle and daughter nucleus (ap-
proximately µ ≈ 4mp , where mp is the proton mass), and ℏ as the reduced
Planck constant. The outer turning point b is found by setting V (b) = E:

2Ze2 2Ze2
=E ⇒ b= .
4πϵ0 b 4πϵ0 E
2Ze2
Substitute the Coulomb potential V (r) = 4πϵ0 r
into the integral:

Z bs  
2µ 2Ze2
G= − E dr.
R ℏ2 4πϵ0 r

2
 Factorize the integrand:
r Z bs
2µ 2Ze2
G= − E dr.
ℏ2 R 4πϵ0 r
2Ze2 k
Let k = 4πϵ0
, so V (r) = and b = Ek . Rewrite the integrand:
r
r Z br
2µ k
G= 2
− E dr.
ℏ R r
Toqevaluate this, substitute r = b cos2 θ, where θ ranges from θ1 =
cos−1 Rb (at r = R) to θ = 0 (at r = b). Then:
dr = −2b cos θ sin θ dθ,
and
k k k
= 2
= E sec2 θ, − E = E(sec2 θ − 1) = E tan2 θ.
r b cos θ r
The square root becomes:
√
r
k
− E = E tan θ.
r
Adjusting limits and the differential, the integral transforms to:
r Z cos−1 √ R
2µ b √
G= E tan θ · (−2b cos θ sin θ) dθ.
ℏ2 0
Simplify and solve (noting the sign change from limits):
r Z 0 r Z cos−1 √ R
2µE 2µE b
G=2 2
b √ sin θ tan θ cos θ dθ = 2 2
b sin2 θ dθ.
ℏ cos−1 R
b
ℏ 0

Using sin2 θ = 1−cos 2θ

2
:
r  cos−1 √ Rb
2µE θ sin 2θ
G=2 b − .
ℏ2 2 4 0
q
Evaluate at θ1 = cos−1 Rb , and after simplification (with b ≫ R):
r r
πZe2 2µ 2µR
G≈ −2 E.
ℏ 4πϵ0 E ℏ2
Thus, the transmission probability is:
" r r #!
πZe2 2µ 2µR
T ≈ exp −2 −2 E .
ℏ 4πϵ0 E ℏ2

3
1.1.3 Decay Rate
The decay constant λ is the product of the frequency of barrier assaults f
(typically 1020 –1021 s−1 ) and the transmission probability:

λ = f T.

The half-life is then t1/2 = lnλ2 . This model predicts that ln t1/2 is inversely
√
proportional to E, consistent with the Geiger-Nuttall law, providing strong
evidence for the tunneling mechanism.

2 DEUTRON PROBLEM
The deuteron (2 H), a bound state of one proton and one neutron, is the
simplest composite nucleus beyond the single proton (1 H). It serves as a
cornerstone for understanding nuclear forces due to its minimal complex-
ity. As a weakly bound system, its stability arises from the delicate balance
between the attractive nuclear force and the repulsive kinetic energy of its
constituents. Experimental measurements provide the following key proper-
ties:

• Binding Energy: EB ≈ 2.225 MeV. This is the energy required to

dissociate the deuteron into a free proton and neutron, reflecting the
strength of the nuclear interaction.

• Radius: r0 ≈ 2.1 fm (where 1 fm = 10−15 m), interpreted as the effec-

tive range over which the nuclear force acts significantly between the
proton and neutron.

To model the deuteron theoretically, we adopt a square well potential,

a simplified yet insightful representation of the nuclear interaction. This
central potential assumes spherical symmetry and is defined as:
(
−V0 for r < r0 ,
V (r) =
0 for r > r0 ,

where V0 > 0 is the depth of the potential well (in energy units, e.g., MeV),
and r0 is the well’s radius. Inside r0 , the potential is attractive (−V0 ), mim-
icking the strong nuclear force, while outside r0 , it vanishes, approximating
the short-range nature of nuclear interactions. Our goal is to solve for V0
such that the deuteron’s binding energy matches the experimental value,
providing an estimate of the nuclear force’s strength.

4
3 Schrödinger Equation
The behavior of the deuteron is governed by the time-independent Schrödinger
equation (TISE):
HΨ = EΨ,
where H is the Hamiltonian, Ψ(r, θ, ϕ) is the wavefunction, and E is the total
energy. For a two-particle system like the deuteron, we use the reduced mass
m = mmpp+m
mn
n
, where mp ≈ mn ≈ 938 MeV/c2 (the proton and neutron masses
are nearly equal), so m ≈ 469 MeV/c2 . The Hamiltonian is:
ℏ2 2
H=− ∇ + V (r),
2m
where ∇2 is the Laplacian in spherical coordinates, and V (r) is the square
well potential. Since E = −EB = −2.225 MeV for a bound state, E < 0.

3.1 Separation of Variables

Given the spherical symmetry of V (r), we separate the wavefunction into
radial and angular components:
u(r) m
Ψ(r, θ, ϕ) = Y (θ, ϕ),
r l
where Ylm (θ, ϕ) are spherical harmonics, l is the orbital angular momentum
quantum number, and m is its projection. For the deuteron’s ground state,
we assume l = 0 (s-wave), as this minimizes the kinetic energy and aligns
with its even parity (J P = 1+ ). For l = 0, Y00 = √14π , a constant, simplifying
the problem to the radial part.
Substituting into the TISE and omitting the centrifugal term (since l =
0), the radial equation becomes:
ℏ2 d2 u
− + V (r)u = Eu.
2m dr2
We solve this piecewise in two regions due to the potential’s discontinuity at
r = r0 .

3.2 Region I: Inside the Well (r < r0 )

For r < r0 , V (r) = −V0 , so the radial equation is:
ℏ2 d2 u
− − V0 u = Eu.
2m dr2
5
Rearrange:
ℏ2 d2 u
= (E + V0 )u.
2m dr2
Since E = −EB < 0 and V0 > EB (for a bound state to exist), E + V0 =
V0 − EB > 0. Define the wave number:
r r
2m(E + V0 ) 2m(V0 − EB )
k= = ,
ℏ2 ℏ2
where k is real and positive. The equation becomes a harmonic oscillator
form:
d2 u
+ k 2 u = 0.
dr2
The general solution is:

uI (r) = A sin kr + B cos kr,

where A and B are constants. However, Ψ = u(r) r

must be finite at r = 0.
The cosine term B cos kr/r → ∞ as r → 0, which is unphysical, so B = 0.
Thus:
uI (r) = A sin kr.
This sine solution is oscillatory, reflecting the particle’s confinement within
the attractive well.

3.3 Region II: Outside the Well (r > r0 )

For r > r0 , V (r) = 0, so:
ℏ2 d2 u
− = Eu.
2m dr2
Since E = −EB < 0, rewrite:

ℏ2 d2 u
= −Eu = EB u.
2m dr2
Define the decay constant:
r r
2m(−E) 2mEB
β= = ,
ℏ2 ℏ2
where β > 0 is real. The equation becomes:

d2 u
2
− β 2 u = 0.
dr
6
The general solution is exponential:

uII (r) = Ceβr + De−βr ,

where C and D are constants. For a bound state, Ψ → 0 as r → ∞. Since

β > 0, eβr grows exponentially, so C = 0 to ensure decay. Thus:

uII (r) = De−βr .

This exponential decay outside the well is characteristic of bound states, with
β −1 as the decay length.

4 Applying Boundary Conditions

To determine V0 , we apply continuity conditions at the boundary r = r0 : 1.
**Continuity of the Wavefunction**: uI (r0 ) = uII (r0 ),

A sin kr0 = De−βr0 .

duI duII
2. **Continuity of the Derivative**: dr r=r0
= dr r=r0
,

duI duII
= Ak cos kr0 , = −βDe−βr0 ,
dr dr
Ak cos kr0 = −βDe−βr0 .

4.1 Matching Condition

Divide the derivative condition by the wavefunction condition to eliminate
A and D:
Ak cos kr0 −βDe−βr0
= ,
A sin kr0 De−βr0
k cot kr0 = −β.
This transcendental equation relates the interior oscillatory behavior to the
exterior decay. Substitute k and β:
r r ! r
2m(V0 − EB ) 2m(V0 − EB ) 2mEB
2
cot r0 2
=− .
ℏ ℏ ℏ2

Since both sides are real, the negative sign indicates the cotangent is negative,
placing kr0 in the second quadrant (π/2 < kr0 < π).

7
4.2 Numerical Solution
Given: - EB = 2.225 MeV, - r0 = 2.1 fm, - m ≈ 469 MeV/c2 , - ℏc ≈
197.3 MeV · fm, so ℏ = 197.3
c
MeV · fm.
Compute β:
r
2 × 469 × 2.225
β= ≈ 0.231 fm−1 .
197.32
The equation becomes:
r r !
2 × 469(V0 − 2.225) 2 × 469(V0 − 2.225)
cot 2.1 = −0.231.
197.32 197.32
Let x = kr0 = 2.1k, where:
r
2 × 469(V0 − 2.225)
k= ,
197.32
r !
p 2 × 469(V0 − 2.225)
V0 − 2.225 cot 2.1 = −0.109.
197.32
Solving numerically (e.g., graphically or iteratively), we find:
V0 ≈ 35 MeV.
This depth is reasonable, as nuclear potentials typically range from 30–50
MeV, reflecting the strong, short-range nuclear force binding the deuteron.

4.3 Physical Insight

The value V0 ≈ 35 MeV suggests the nuclear potential is significantly deeper
than the binding energy, consistent with a weakly bound system where the
wavefunction extends beyond r0 . The exponential tail outside the well indi-
cates a probability of finding the particles at r > r0 , a hallmark of quantum
tunneling in nuclear physics.

5 Angular Momentum
In quantum mechanics, the total angular momentum of a system is a vector
sum of its constituent angular momenta. For the deuteron, a two-particle
system comprising a proton and a neutron, the total angular momentum J
is given by:
J = L + S,
where:

8
 • L: Orbital angular momentum, arising fromp the relative motion of the
proton and neutron, with magnitude L = l(l + 1)ℏ, where l is the
orbital quantum number (l = 0, 1, 2, . . .).

• S: Spin angular momentum, resulting from

pthe intrinsic spins of the
proton and neutron, with magnitude S = s(s + 1)ℏ, where s is the
total spin quantum number.

• J:
p Total angular momentum (nuclear spin), with magnitude J =
j(j + 1)ℏ, where j is the total angular momentum quantum num-
ber.

The coupling of L and S determines the deuteron’s quantum states, which

we explore in the context of its observed nuclear spin J = 1.

6 Parity
Parity is a symmetry property of the wavefunction under spatial inversion
(r → −r) and is either even or odd, depending on the orbital angular mo-
mentum quantum number l:

• Even Parity: Occurs when l = 0, 2, 4, 6, . . ., where the wavefunction

satisfies:
ϕ(−r) = ϕ(r),
yielding a parity eigenvalue P = +1.

• Odd Parity: Occurs when l = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . ., where:

ϕ(−r) = −ϕ(r),

yielding P = −1.

For the deuteron, experimental evidence indicates a total angular mo-

mentum J = 1 and even parity, denoted as J P = 1+ , so:

P = +1.

This constrains l to even values, influencing the possible states of the system.

9
7 Deuteron Case
The deuteron’s simplicity makes it an ideal system for studying nuclear forces.
Initially, we assume a central potential (e.g., the square well model), which
is spherically symmetric and depends only on the radial distance r. For such
a potential, the orbital angular momentum l = 0 (s-wave) is often dominant
in the ground state, implying that the total angular momentum arises solely
from spin:
J = S, if L = 0.
The Hamiltonian H commutes with the parity operator P :

[H, P ] = 0,

indicating that parity is a conserved quantity, and the deuteron’s wavefunc-

tion has a definite parity (even, in this case).

7.1 Two-Nucleon System

The deuteron consists of two nucleons: a proton (p) and a neutron (n), each
with intrinsic spin:
1 1
Sp = , Sn = .
2 2
Their spins couple to form the total spin S, with possible values determined
by quantum mechanical addition rules:

S = |Sp − Sn |, . . . , Sp + Sn = 0 or 1.

The total spin operator S2 has eigenvalues:

S 2 = s(s + 1)ℏ2 .

- For S = 0: S 2 = 0. - For S = 1: S 2 = 1(1 + 1)ℏ2 = 2ℏ2 (not 43 ℏ2 , which

applies to individual spins).

7.2 Independent Spin States

Before coupling, the proton and neutron spins can be considered in their
individual basis states along the z-axis (Sz ):

ℏ ℏ
Sp,z = ± , Sn,z = ± .
2 2

10
Possible uncoupled states include:
ℏ ℏ
Sp,z = + , Sn,z = + ⇒ | ↑↑⟩,
2 2
ℏ ℏ
Sp,z = − , Sn,z = − ⇒ | ↓↓⟩,
2 2
ℏ ℏ
Sp,z = + , Sn,z = − ⇒ | ↑↓⟩,
2 2
ℏ ℏ
Sp,z = − , Sn,z = + ⇒ | ↓↑⟩.
2 2
These states are independent and form a basis, but nuclear forces couple the
spins into total spin eigenstates.

7.3 Coupled Spin States

The total spin S = Sp + Sn yields two possibilities: - S = 0 (singlet state,
antisymmetric under particle exchange):
1
|0, 0⟩ = √ (| ↑↓⟩ − | ↓↑⟩) ,
2
with Sz = 0. - S = 1 (triplet state, symmetric):

|1, 1⟩ = | ↑↑⟩, Sz = +ℏ,

|1, −1⟩ = | ↓↓⟩, Sz = −ℏ,

1
|1, 0⟩ = √ (| ↑↓⟩ + | ↓↑⟩) , Sz = 0.
2
Experimentally, the deuteron’s nuclear spin is J = 1. For a central po-
tential with L = 0:
J = S,
so S = 1, and the triplet state (Sz = −1, 0, +1) is favored. This is consistent
with the Pauli exclusion principle for identical particles (though proton and
neutron are distinct), and the nuclear force’s spin dependence.

11
7.4 Central vs. Non-Central Potential
Central Potential (L = 0): If the nuclear force is purely central:

J = S = 1,

matching J = 1 and P = +1 (since l = 0 is even).

Non-Central Potential: Nuclear forces include a tensor (non-central)
component, allowing L > 0. For J = 1: - S = 0:

• L = 1: J = L = 1, but P = −1 (odd), contradicting 1+ .

• L = 0: J = 0, not possible.

• L = 2: J = 2, not possible.

Thus, S = 0 is inconsistent with J P = 1+ .

- S = 1:

• L = 0: J = 1 (possible, P = +1).

• L = 1: J = 0, 1, 2 (but P = −1, not allowed).

• L = 2: J = 1, 2, 3 (possible, P = +1).

• L = 3: J = 2, 3, 4 (not J = 1).

Thus, allowed states are S = 1 with L = 0 or L = 2.

7.5 Allowed States and Spectroscopic Notation

For S = 1: - L = 0: J = 1, denoted 3 S1 (triplet S-state, even parity). -
L = 2: J = 1, 2, 3, but only J = 1 matches, denoted 3 D1 (triplet D-state,
even parity).
The ground state is a superposition:

|ψ⟩ = a|3 S1 ⟩ + b|3 D1 ⟩, |a|2 + |b|2 = 1,

where |a|2 ≫ |b|2 (typically |b|2 ≈ 0.04), reflecting a dominant central (L = 0)

and minor non-central (L = 2) contribution.

12
7.6 Physical Interpretation
• S = 1: Indicates spin-dependent nuclear forces, favoring parallel
spins in the triplet state.

• L = 0: Represents the central force component, isotropic and domi-

nant in the ground state.

• L = 2: Reflects the tensor force, introducing anisotropy and rota-

tional effects (D-state admixture).

The absence of excited bound states is due to the weak binding (EB =
2.225 MeV), insufficient to support higher energy levels. The dynamics are
governed by:
⃗ +S
L ⃗ = J,
⃗

with time evolution of L driven by torque from non-central forces:

dL
= τ.
dt

8 Magnetic Moment of the Deuteron

The magnetic moment of the deuteron provides insight into its internal struc-
ture and the nature of nuclear forces. Experimentally, the expectation value
of the magnetic moment along the z-axis is:

⟨µz ⟩ = 0.8574 µN ,

where µN is the nuclear magneton, defined as:

eℏ
µN = ,
2mp

with e the elementary charge, ℏ the reduced Planck constant, and mp the
proton mass (µN ≈ 5.0508 × 10−27 J/T).

8.1 General Form of Magnetic Moment

For a charged particle with angular momentum, the magnetic moment is:
e
µz = g lz ,
2m

13
where g is the gyromagnetic ratio (g-factor), m is the particle’s mass, and
lz is the z-component of orbital angular momentum. In nuclear physics, we
express this in terms of the nuclear magneton:
g
µz = µN lz .
ℏ
For the deuteron, a composite system of a proton and neutron, the magnetic
moment arises from: - The proton’s orbital motion (Lz ). - The proton’s
intrinsic spin (Spz ). - The neutron’s intrinsic spin (Snz ), despite its neutrality,
due to its internal quark structure.
The g-factors are: - Proton: gp = 5.5857 (spin contribution, from µp =
2.7928 µN ). - Neutron: gn = −3.8263 (spin contribution, from µn = −1.9130 µN ).
- Orbital (proton): gL = 1 (since µ = 2me p Lz ).
The total magnetic moment operator is:
 
Lz Spz Snz
µz = µN gL + gp + gn .
ℏ ℏ ℏ
The expectation value is:
 
⟨Lz ⟩ ⟨Spz ⟩ ⟨Snz ⟩
⟨µz ⟩ = µN gL + gp + gn .
ℏ ℏ ℏ
However, the deuteron’s wavefunction is not a pure eigenstate of Lz , compli-
cating direct computation.

8.2 Quantum Numbers and Spin Coupling

The deuteron has total angular momentum J = 1, with possible z-components:

Jz = −ℏ, 0, ℏ, MJ = −1, 0, 1.

For maximal alignment (e.g., MJ = 1):

|J, MJ ⟩ = |1, 1⟩.

The total spin S = Sp + Sn is S = 1 (triplet state), with:

Sz = Spz + Snz , MS = −1, 0, 1.

For MS = 1, the state is:

|1, 1⟩S = | ↑↑⟩,
where:
ℏ ℏ
Spz | ↑↑⟩ = | ↑↑⟩, Snz | ↑↑⟩ = | ↑↑⟩.
2 2
14
8.3 Central Potential Case (L = 0)
Assuming a purely central potential (L = 0, 3 S1 state), J = S = 1, and:

⟨Lz ⟩ = 0.

The expectation value simplifies to:

 
⟨Spz ⟩ ⟨Snz ⟩
⟨µz ⟩ = µN gp + gn .
ℏ ℏ

For |1, 1⟩S :

ℏ ℏ
⟨↑↑ |Spz | ↑↑⟩ = , ⟨↑↑ |Snz | ↑↑⟩ = ,
2 2
 
ℏ/2 ℏ/2 gp + gn
⟨µz ⟩ = µN gp + gn = µN .
ℏ ℏ 2
Using gp = 5.5857, gn = −3.8263:

5.5857 − 3.8263 1.7594

⟨µz ⟩ = µN = µN = 0.8797 µN .
2 2
This overestimates the measured value (0.8574 µN ), suggesting the L = 0
assumption is incomplete.

9 Expectation Value and Non-Central Effects

Recomputing with corrected notation (assuming 8p was a typo for gp ):
µN µN
⟨µz ⟩ = gp ⟨↑↑ | ↑↑⟩ + gn ⟨↑↑ | ↑↑⟩,
2 2
⟨↑↑ | ↑↑⟩ = 1,
g gn 
p
⟨µz ⟩ = µN + = 0.8797 µN ,
2 2
consistent with the L = 0 case. The discrepancy from 0.8574 µN (and a cited
“theoretical value” of 0.798 µN , possibly a misprint) indicates additional
contributions.

15
9.1 Non-Central Effects: L = 2 Contribution
Nuclear forces include a tensor component, introducing an L = 2 (D-state)
admixture in the ground state:
|ψ⟩ = a|3 S1 ⟩ + b|3 D1 ⟩, |a|2 + |b|2 = 1.
For 3 D1 (L = 2, S = 1, J = 1): - mL = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, - mS = −1, 0, 1, -
mJ = mL + mS = 1.
Possible states for MJ = 1: 1. mL = 2, mS = −1, 2. mL = 1, mS = 0, 3.
mL = 0, mS = 1.
The D-state wavefunction is:
|3 D1 , MJ = 1⟩ = α|L = 2, mL = 2⟩|S = 1, mS = −1⟩+β|L = 2, mL = 1⟩|S = 1, mS = 0⟩
+γ|L = 2, mL = 0⟩|S = 1, mS = 1⟩,
with
|α|2 + |β|2 + |γ|2 = 1.
The magnetic moment depends on ⟨Lz ⟩ and ⟨Sz ⟩:
⟨Lz ⟩ = ℏ(2|α|2 + |β|2 ), ⟨Sz ⟩ = ℏ(−|α|2 + |γ|2 ).
Using approximate coefficients (e.g., from nuclear models), ⟨µz ⟩D ≈ 0.310 µN .
The total magnetic moment is:
⟨µz ⟩ = |a|2 ⟨µz ⟩S + |b|2 ⟨µz ⟩D ,
⟨µz ⟩ = |a|2 (0.8797) + |b|2 (0.310).
Fitting to the measured 0.8574 µN :
0.8574 = 0.8797|a|2 + 0.310|b|2 , |a|2 + |b|2 = 1,
0.8574 = 0.8797(1 − |b|2 ) + 0.310|b|2 ,
0.8574 = 0.8797 − 0.8797|b|2 + 0.310|b|2 ,
0.8574 − 0.8797 = (0.310 − 0.8797)|b|2 ,
−0.0223 = −0.5697|b|2 ,
0.0223
|b|2 = ≈ 0.039, |a|2 ≈ 0.961.
0.5697
Thus: - |a|2 ≈ 96% (3 S1 ), - |b|2 ≈ 4% (3 D1 ), yielding:
⟨µz ⟩ ≈ 0.857 µN ,
matching experiment closely.

16
9.2 Quadrupole Moment and Nuclear Shape
The deuteron’s electric quadrupole moment is:

Q = 2.88 × 10−27 cm2 ̸= 0,

indicating a non-spherical (prolate) shape. For a pure L = 0 state, Q = 0

(spherical symmetry), so the L = 2 component is essential. This confirms
the presence of non-central (tensor) forces, as:

Q ∝ ⟨r2 Y20 ⟩,

non-zero only for L ≥ 2. The deuteron’s ground state is thus a mixture of

3
S1 and 3 D1 , reflecting the complexity of nuclear interactions.

17