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MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
Unit I

Electronics supplies tools which are aids for treating patients. The medical electronic instruments
measure and analysis the variables in a human system. It helps in obtaining reliable and meaningful
measurements of a living being.
Explain the anatomy of human body
I.Cell: The smallest functional unit of the human body is cell. Each kind of cell has a certain structure and
function. Each cell carries out its specialized function to help the body to survive and grow. Example:
Blood cells, Muscle cells, Bone cells etc.
Tissues → Organs → System → Human Body
Cells →
(Group of (Group of (Different (Different
similar similar Organs) Systems)
Cells) Tissues)

II.Tissue: A group of similar cells constitute a tissue. i.e. Collections of many of the same kind of
cell come together to form tissues. The human body has four main types of tissue that serve
specialized functions.
1. Muscle tissue is involved in movement.
2. Epithelial tissue is found on the surface of organs and lines the inner spaces of organs. The
main functions of epithelial tissue are protection, secretion and absorption.
3. Nervous tissue functions to sense stimuli from the environment and send signals throughout
the body.
4. Connective tissue: This type of tissue connects and holds together structures in the body,
providing support and structure. Eg: bones and fat tissue.
III.Organs: A groups of similar tissues form an
organ. i.e. Specialized interacting tissues
compose each organ. Each organ has specific
functions to be carried out.
Eg. Skin, brain, kidneys, liver, stomach, heart,
lungs
Skin: the largest human organ and it protects and
cover human body
Brain: It controls nerves.
Lungs: used in respiration.
Liver: filters blood
Kidneys: filter blood and form urine.
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Heart: pumps blood

Stomach: used in digestion
2. Explain various physiological systems of Human body:
A group of organs that work together in performing vital body functions is called physiological system. Eg.
Respiratory System, Digestive System/Excretory System, Cardiovascular/Circulatory System, Renal
System/Urinary System, Endocrine System, Nervous System, Musculoskeletal system, Exocrine System,
Lymphatic System/Immune System, Reproductive System etc.
Respiratory System: Allows gas exchange between cells and the environment. Includes trachea and
lungs. The entire process of taking in oxygen from the environment, transporting the oxygen to the cells,
removing carbon-di-oxide from the cells and exhausting it to the atmosphere is called as respiration.
Nervous System: It allows perception, emotion, thought, and rapid response to the environment.
Includes brain and nerves. Another important function of the nervous system is to allow our brain to send
signals to back to our body, enabling us to respond to environmental stimuli.
Cardiovascular/Circulatory System: Moves materials between body systems, including oxygen,
nutrients, hormones, and waste products. It includes the heart, arteries, and veins.
Sources of Bioelectric potentials
The physiological systems in the human body generate their own monitoring signals when they carry out
their functions. These signals provide useful information about their function.
• Bioelectric potentials are actually ionic voltages produced as a result of electro chemical activity
of certain cell. Transducers are used to convert these ionic potentials into electrical
signals.Eg,ECG(Electrocardiogram),EEG(Electroencephalogram),EMG(Electromiogram)
Bioelectric potentials: Certain types of cells within the body such as nerve and muscle cells are encased in
a semi permeable membrane. This membrane permits some substances to pass through while others are
kept out. Surrounding and inside the cells of the body are the body fluids. These fluids are conductive
solutions containing charged atoms known as ions. The principle ions are sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+)
and chloride(C-). Ionic potentials are formed in certain cells of the body due to the differences in the
concentration of certain chemical ions, like Sodium (Na+), Chloride (Cl-) and Potassium (K+) ions.
3. Explain Resting Potential
 At rest the cell membranes are more
permeable to some ions like potassium and
chloride and less permeable to some ions like
sodium.
 As a result the concentration of positive
sodium ions inside the cell is less than the
concentration of sodium ions outside the
cell.
 So inside the cell is more negative than outside cell. Thus the cell is said to be polarized.
 This membrane potentials at resting state(equilibrium state) is called Resting potentials.
 This potential is measured from inside the cell with respect to body fluids.
 So resting potential of a cell is negative and is about -70 mV(-60mV to -100mV .

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4.Explain Action Potential

When the cell is stimulated by some form of externally
applied energy, the cell membrane allows some of the
sodium ions to enter inside the cell.
•But the potassium ions are unable to move to outside as
rapidly as sodium ions.
•Because of this the cell has a slightly positive potential
on the i n s i d e due to imbalance of potassium Ions.
•This potential is known as Action Potentials and is about +20 mV.
•A cell that has been excited and that displays an action potential is said to be depolarized. The process of
changing from the resting state to the action potential is called depolarization.
 When the stimulus is completed, the membrane revert back to its original condition where in the
passage of sodium ions from outside to inside of the cell is again blocked.
 By an active process called sodium pump, the sodium ions are quickly transported to the outside of
the cell and the cell again becomes polarized and assumes its resting potential.
 This process that the Cell comes from depolarized state in to polarized state is called
Repolarization.
Generally in nerve & muscle cells repolarization occurs so rapidly following depolarization that the
action potential appeals on a spike of as little as 1 millisecond total duration. But for heart muscle, the
action potential is withstanding from 150 to 300 msec & so it repolarizes more slowly.
Propagation of Action potentials •
When a cell is exited and generates an action potential, ionic currents tend to flow. This process
excites neighboring cells or adjacent area of the same cell.
Electrodes
Electrodes are devices that convert ionic potentials into electronic potentials. The type of electrode
used for the measurements depends on the anatomical location of the bioelectric event to be measured
5. Explain three types of electrodes
Needle Electrodes
Needle electrode records the peripheral nerve action potential. It resembles a medicinal syringe.
Needle electrodes are mostly used in the measurement of EEG and EMG signals. Two type of needle
electrodes namely Mono-polar Electrode: This type uses single reference electrode placed on the skin.
The mono polar needle electrode usually consists of a Teflon coated stainless steel wire which is bare
only at the tip. Bi – polar Electrode: This type has one reference electrode and one active electrode.
Bipolar (double coaxial) needle electrodes contain two insulated wires within a metal cannula. The
two wires are bared at the tip and provide the contacts to the patient. The cannula acts as the ground.
Bipolar electrodes are electrically symmetrical.

Microelectrode

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Microelectrodes are electrodes with tips sufficiently small to penetrate a single cell without
damaging the cell in order to obtain readings from within the cell. Metal microelectrodes are
formed by electrolytically etching the tip of fine tungsten to the desired size and dimension.
Microelectrodes are generally of two types: metal and micropipette or micro capillaries electrode.
The metal microelectrodes are used in direct contact with the biological tissue without damaging
the cell therefore, and have a lower resistance micro capillaries electrode or micropipette electrode
is usually filled with an electrolyte which substitutes an electrolytic conductor of small cross-
sectional area, which gives a micropipette its high resistance. They are used for cellular,
electrophysiological, and neurosurgery and neurophysiologic applications.

Micropipette or micro capillaries electrode

Surface Electrodes
Surface electrode measures the potential available from the surface of the skin. It senses the signal from
heart, brain and nerves. Larger surface electrodes sense the ECG signals. Smaller surface electrodes sense
the EMG and EEG signals. The types of surface electrodes are as follows.

1. Metal plate Electrode

ECG measurement technique uses either rectangular or circular shaped plate electrodes made of nickel,
silver or Germanium silver materials. It has a smaller contact area and do not seal completely on the
patient. Electrodes are pasted on the skin using electrolyte paste. The electrode slippage and plate
displacement are the two major disadvantages of this electrode type. They are very sensitive, leading to
measurement errors. Since it is suitable for application on four limbs of the body, and they are called limb
electrodes.
2. Suction Cup Electrodes or Welsh Cup Electrodes
To measure ECG from various positions on the chest, Suction cup electrodes are used. It suits well to attach
electrodes on flat surface of the body and on soft tissue regions. They have a good contact surface.
Physically they are large but the skin contacts only the electrode rim. It has high contact impedance. They
have a plastic syringe barrel, suction tube and cables. Recently, due to infection and cleaning procedures,
these electrodes are not used.

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3. Adhesive Type Electrodes

It has a lightweight metallic screen. They have a pad at behind for placing electrode paste. This adhesive
backing hold the electrode on place and tight. It also helps to avoid evaporation of electrolyte present in the
electrode paste.

4. Floating Electrodes
In metal plate or limb electrodes, motion artefact occurs due to the motion at the interface between
electrode and electrolyte. The interface between electrode and electrolyte gets stabilized using floating
electrodes. The floating electrodes do not contact the human subject directly. They contact the subject via
electrolytic paste or jelly. The advantage of this type is the mechanical stability.

5. Flexible Electrode Flexible Electrode

The basic electrode consists of 13 μm thick Mylar film with Ag/AgCl film deposition. The flexible lead
wire is attached to the Mylar substrate by means of a conducting adhesive. It has the advantage of being
flexible and conforming to the shape of newborn’s chest and used for monitoring new born infants.
6. Explain electrical activity of heart with diagram

The heart is divided into four chambers. The top two chambers are atria and lower two chambers are
ventricles. The right atrium receives the blood from the veins enters into the right atrium from which is
pumped into right ventricles. The right ventricle pumps the blood into the lungs where it is purified and
oxygenated. The oxygen enriched blood enters the left atrium from which it is pumped into the left
ventricle. Then the left ventricle pumps the blood into arteries through Aortic valve for circulation
throughout the body. For circulation, blood requires proper pressure and sufficient pressure is delivered
by the ventricular muscle’s contraction.
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 Each action potential in the heart originates at the sinoatrial node (SA node) which is situated in the
wall of the right atrium and near the entry of the vena cava. It is also called cardiac pacemaker. Which
generate impulses at the normal rate of the heart, about 70 beats per minute at rest.
 The rate is governed by the autonomic nervous system, being increased by sympathetic nerves and
decreased by the parasympathetic nerves. These are connected with brain through the spinal cord.
 The action potential contracts the atrial muscle and the impulse spreads through the atrial wall during a
period of about 0.04 sec to the atrio-ventricular (AV) node. The node is located in the lower part of the
wall between the two atria.
 The AV node delays the spread of excitation for about 0.11 second. Thus the AV node acts as a “delay
line” to provide timing between the action of atria and ventricles.
 The electrical impulse travels rapidly from the AV node down the bundle of His, where the impulse
splits into the right and left bundle branches
 The electrical impulse travels from the right and left bundle branches through the Purkinje fibers to the
ventricular cells. Cardiac cycle is divided into
1. Systole: Contraction of heart - Blood being pumped into the aorta for circulation throughout the body.
2. Diastole: Relaxation or dilation of heart - Heart cavities being filled with blood through the superior and
inferior vena cava

Sinoatrial Node (SA Node)

It is responsible for the normal pacemaker function of the heart. The SA node’s automaticity initiates beats
at a rate of 60 to 100 beats per minute (bpm) normally through inter atrial and inter nodal pathways.
The atrioventricular (AV) node is located in the right atrium behind the tricuspid valve. The AV node
conducts the electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricles after delaying the transmission for
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approximately 0.04 seconds, which allows for the atria to contract and fill the ventricles.
Bundle of His: The electrical impulse travels rapidly from the AV node down the bundle of His, where the
impulse splits into the right and left bundle branches. The impulse moves down the right bundle branch
along inter ventricular septum and through the right ventricle. The impulse simultaneously moves down the
left bundle branch along inter ventricular septum and through the left ventricle. The inherent rate of bundle
branch impulses is 40 to 60 bpm.
Purkinje Fibers: The Purkinje fibers are located in the ventricular walls of the heart. The electrical
impulse travels from the right and left bundle branches through the Purkinje fibers to the ventricular cells.
7.To explain the origin and significance of ECG waveform.
The electrocardiogram (ECG) is a graphic recording or display of the time-variant bio potentials produced
by the myocardium during the cardiac cycle. The P, QRS, and T waves reflect the rhythmic electrical
depolarization and repolarization of the myocardium associated with the contractions of the atria and
ventricles.
The P wave is designated as the baseline or the isopotential line. The P wave represents depolarization of
the atrial musculature. The QRS complex is the combined result of the repolarization of the atria and the
depolarization of the ventricles, which occur almost simultaneously. The T wave is the wave of ventricular
repolarization, whereas the U wave, is to be the result of after potentials in the ventricular muscle. The P-Q
interval represents the time during which the excitation wave is delayed in the fibers near the AV node.
Some normal values for amplitudes and durations of important ECG parameters are given below.

Amplitude: Duration:
P wave 0.25 mV P-R interval 0.12 to 0.20 sec
R wave 1.60 mV Q-T interval 0.35 to 0.44 sec
Q wave 25% of R wave S-T segment 0.05 to 0.15 sec
T wave 0.1 to 0.5 mV P wave interval 0.11 sec
QRS interval 0.09 sec
Significance of ECG waveform
The shape, time interval and amplitude of the ECG give the details of the state of the heart.
Any form of arrhythmia (disturbances in the heart rhythm) can be easily diagnosed using
electrocardiogram.
For his diagnosis, a cardiologist would typically look first at the heart rate.
The normal value of heartbeat lies in the range of 60 to 100 beats per minute.
A slower rate than this is called bradycardia (slow heart) and a higher rate, tachycardia (fast heart).
If the P-R interval is greater than 0.2 second, it can suggest blockage of the AV node.
Applications of ECG
The electrocardiogram is used clinically in diagnosing various diseases and conditions associated with the
heart. It also serves as a timing reference for other measurements.
Origin of ECG waveform
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Each action potential in the heart originates near the top of the right atrium at a point called the pacemaker
or sinoatrial (SA) node.
The pacemaker is a group of specialized cells that spontaneously generates action potentials at a regular
rate.
To initiate the heart beat the action potentials generated by the pacemaker propagate in all directions along
the surface of both atria.
The wave terminates at a point near the center of the heart called the atrioventricular node(AV node).
A t this point some special fibers act as a delay line to provide proper timing between the action of the atria
and ventricles.
Once the electrical excitation has passed through the (AV node) delay line, it is rapidly spread to all parts
of the ventricles by the bundle of His.

If the PR interval is more than 0.22 sec, the AV Block occurs [first degree – heart attack]. When the QRS
complex duration is more than 0.1 second the bundle block occurs. [Severe heart attack].
3. Explain the block diagram of ECG recorder.
The potentials picked up by the patient electrodes are taken to the lead selector switch. By means of
capacitive coupling, the signal is connected symmetrically to the differential preamplifier. The
preamplifier is usually a three or four stage differential amplifier having a sufficiently large negative
current feedback. The amplified output signal is given to the power amplifier. The power amplifier is
generally of the push-pull differential type. The base of one input transistor of this amplifier is driven by
the pre-amplified unsymmetrical signal. The base of the other transistor is driven by the feedback signal
resulting from the pen position and connected via frequency selective network. The output of the power
amplifier is single-ended and is fed to the pen motor, which deflects the writing arm on the paper.
Frequency selective network is an R–C network, which provides necessary damping of the pen motor. The
auxiliary circuits provide a 1 mV calibration signal and automatic blocking of the amplifier during a change
in the position of the lead switch. It may include a speed control circuit for the chart drive motor.

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Electrodes and Leads

To record an electrocardiogram, a number of electrodes, usually five are affixed to the body of the patient.
The electrodes are connected to the ECG machine by the same number of electrical wires. The term lead
will only be used to indicate a particular group of electrodes and the way in which they are connected to the
amplifier. The electrode applied to the right leg of the patient, for example is called the RL lead. The
electrocardiogram is recorded from a number of different leads, usually 12,to ensure that no important detail
of the waveform is missed.
The 12 standard leads used most frequently are shown in the figure. The three bipolar limb lead selections
first introduced by Einthoven are shown in the top row of the figure, are as follows:
Lead I: Left Arm (LA) and Right Arm (RA)
Lead II: Left Leg (LL) and Right Arm (RA)
Lead III: Left Leg (LL) and Left Arm (LA)
The three leads are called bipolar because for each lead, the electrocardiogram is recorded from two
electrodes and third electrode is not connected. In each of these lead positions, the QRS of a normal
heart is such that the R wave is positive. The R wave amplitude of lead II is equal to the sum of the R
wave amplitudes of leads I and III.
For augmented unipolar leads introduced by Wilson, the electrocardiogram is recorded between a single
exploratory electrode and a central terminal. The leads are designated as aVR, aVL and aVF
For the unipolar chest leads, a single chest electrode (exploring electrode) is sequentially placed on each
of the six predesignated points on the chest. These chest potions are called the precordial unipolar leads
and are designated V1 through V6.All three active limb electrodes are used to obtain the central terminal,
while a separate chest electrode is used as an exploratory electrode.

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ORGANISATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron. A neuron is a single cell with a cell body called
soma.
One or more “input” fibers called dendrites. A long transmitting fiber called the ‘axon’.
The axon branches near its ending into two or more terminals. The portion of the axon immediately
adjacent to the cell body is called ‘axon hillock’. This is the point at which action potentials are
generated. Certain types of neurons have axons or dendrites coated with a fatty insulating substance
called ‘myelin’. The coating is called a myelin sheath .The myelin sheath is interrupted at regular
intervals by the ‘nodes of Ranvier’, which help speed the transmission of information along the nerves.

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Both axons and dendrites are called nerve fibers. A bundle of individual nerve fibers is called a nerve.
Nerves the carry sensory information from the various parts of the body to the brain are called afferent
nerves.
Nerves that carry signals from the brain to operate various muscles are called efferent nerves.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The brain is an enlarged collection of cell bodies and fibers located
inside the skull, where it is well protected from light as well as from physical, chemical or temperature
shocks. At its lower end, the brain connects with the spinal cord, which also consists of many cell
bodies and fiber bundles. Together the brain and spiral cord comprise the central nervous system
(CNS).
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) Peripheral nerves contain both afferent and efferent fibers.
Afferent peripheral nerves that bring sensory information into the CNS are called sensory nerves.
Efferent nerves that control the motor functions of muscles are called motor nerves. The PNS actually
consists of several subsystems. The system of afferent nerves that carry sensory information from the
sensors on the skin to the brain is called the somatic sensory nervous systems. Visual pathways carry
sensory information from the eyes to the brain. The auditory nervous system carries information from
the auditory sensors in the ears to the brain. Another major division of PNS is the autonomic nervous
system, which is involved with emotional responses and controls smooth muscle in various parts of the
body, heart muscle and the secretion of a number of glands.

The brain consists of cerebrum, cerebellum and the brain stem.

The cerebrum consists of two hemispheres and the hemispheres are divided into 1) frontal lobe, 2)
parietal lobe, 3) occipital lobe and 4) temporal lobe.
The frontal lobes are responsible for intelligence, constructive imagination and abstract thought.
The outer layer of the brain is called cerebral cortex.
The areas in the cerebral cortex is responsible for sight, hearing, touch and control of the voluntary
muscles of the body.

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9. Explain EEG : The recorded representation of bioelectric potentials generated by the neuronal activity of the brain is
called the electroencephalogram abbreviated as EEG. Electrical potentials of the brain are due to gradient in concentration of
dendrite graded potentials. The brain waves are the summation of neural depolarizations in the brain due to stimuli from the
five sense organs as well as from the thought processes on the surface of the brain.
Frequency range of EEG is 0.1 Hz to 100 Hz.
Typical signal voltage of EEG is 50 mV.
Brain waves can be classified into alpha, beta, theta and delta waves.
During recording electrodes are placed around the frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes of the brain.
Below 3.5Hz -delta- deeper sleep
From 3.5Hz to about 8Hz -theta light sleep
From about 8Hz to about 13Hz -alpha- drowsy
Above 13Hz -beta- Alert and wide awaken

Explain the block diagram of EEG machine

• The recording of electrical activity of the brain (EEG) is done by means of electrodes attached to the
skull of a patient.
• EEG recording set up includes the patient cable having 21 electrodes and is connected to the channel
selector.
• Every channel of the channel selector consists of an individual, multistage, ac coupled, differential,
adjustable gain amplifier.
• These amplifiers must have high gain and low noise characteristics. The amplifier must be free from
drift so as to prevent the slow movement of recording pen.
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• The EEG signal frequency ranges between large values so it becomes necessary to use set of
filters including low pass, high pass and band pass. The amplified EEG signals are passed
through the filter bank. Typical cut off frequencies for
• Low pass filters → 5.3, 1.6, 0.53 & 0.15 Hz
• Band pass filters → 60 Hz
• High pass filters → 15, 30, 70, 300 Hz

Electrode Montage Selector: EEG signals are transmitted from the electrodes to the head box, which is
labeled according to the 10–20 system, and then to the montage selector.
• The montage selector is a large panel containing switches that allow the user to select electrode
pair which will have signals to create an array of channels output called a montage.
• Filters: An EEG may also contain muscle artifacts due to contraction of the scalp and neck
muscles. These artefacts are generally removed using low pass filters.
• Noise: EEG amplifiers are selected for minimum noise level .Noise contains components at all
frequencies and because of this, the recorded noise increases with the bandwidth of the system. It
is therefore important to restrict the bandwidth to that required for faithful reproduction of the
signal.
• Writing Part: The writing part of an EEG machine is usually of the ink type direct writing
recorder.
• Paper Drive: This is provided by a synchronous motor. Speeds of 15, 30 and 60 mm/s are
essential.
• Channels: The electrodes are connected to separate amplifiers and writing systems. Commercial
EEG machines have up to 32 channels, although 8 or 16 channels are more common.
• Sensitivity Control: The gain of amplifiers is normally set so that signals of about 200 mV deflect
the pens over their full linear range.
Significance of EEG
 There are facilities available to record evoked potentials from the brain due to external stimuli
like visual stimulus, audio stimulus and tactile stimulus.
 The time delay between the stimulus and response can also be measured in the signal processing
unit.
 EEG helps in diagnosing disorders or abnormalities related to brain such as

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 Tumors → electrical activity absent in part of hemisphere.

 Epilepsy → symptom of brain damage due to defects in the birth delivery or head injury during
accident
 Sleep disorders → discharge of large groups of neurons also due to brain tumor
Analysis of EEG

An alert, wide-awake person usually displays an unsynchronized high frequency EEG.A drowsy
person often produces a large amount of rhythmic activity in the range 8 to 13 Hz. In light sleep, a
large amplitude, low frequency waveform emerges. Deeper sleep generally results in even slower
and higher amplitude waves. The period of high frequency EEG that occurs during sleep is rapid
eye movement (REM) sleep
EEG ELECTRODE SYSTEM The commonly used electrode system for recording EEG signals
is termed as 10-20 electrode system.
The electrode are placed at a distance of 10% and 20% approximately from the total distance
between the extreme end points of the skull namely nasion, inion, right and left ear lobes. This
type of system is also called montage electrode system. In this system electrodes are placed
symmetrically on both sides of the skull. Both bipolar and unipolar system can be used.

Electromyogram (EMG)
The bioelectric potentials associated with muscle activity constitute the electromyogram (EMG).
These potentials may be measured at the surface of the body near a muscle of interest or directly
from the muscle by using needle electrode.
The EMG indicates the amount of activity of a given muscle or group of muscles.
The pattern is usually a summation of the individual action potentials from the fibers constituting
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the muscle being measured. EMG electrodes pick up potentials from all muscles within the range
of the electrodes.
The action potential of a given muscle has affixed amplitude, regardless of the intensity of the
stimulus that generates the response.
In a muscle, the intensity with which the muscle acts increase the rate at which the muscle fibers
fires and the number of fibers that are activated at any given time. The EMG waveform appears
very much like a random noise waveform with the energy of the signal a function of the amount of
muscle activity and electrode placement.
10. Explain the setup for EMG measurement using block diagram.
Electromyography is the technique for calculating and
recording the action potential of muscles.
EMG is taken using a device called electromyograph
and the record obtained is known as electromyogram.
EMG electrode: The electrode used for EMG recording
can be of surface type or needle type.
To measure the electrical activity of individual
muscle cells, needle electrodes are the best choice. But
if the general activity of a muscle is to be analyzed
surface electrodes can give the accurate values.
1.Bioelectric amplifier: The bioelectric amplifiers are used to amplify the bioelectric signals
obtained from EMG electrodes.
2.AF amplifier: At rest under normal condition the sound does not undergo large variations.
3.But abnormal and spontaneous activity may be distinguished by the sudden change in sound.
4.The abnormal activity usually indicates muscle damage and they can easily find out the nerve
or muscle damage. So physicians normally use AF amplifiers during EMG measurement so as to
distinguish there sounds clearly.
5.Oscilloscope: The measured EMG can be connected to the oscilloscope to visualize the EMG.
The abnormalities in the working of nerves and muscle cells can be identified by a physician by
analyzing the EMG waveform.
6. EMG recorder: Normally we use the photographic recording of EMG. For this a light
sensitive paper is used.
Significance of EMG
The abnormalities in the working of nerves and muscle cells can be identified by a physician by
analyzing the EMG waveform.
The electrical activity of muscle cells when they are active and at rest can be analyzed using an
EMG.
The measured EMG potentials range from 50 µ volt to 30 millivolts. The normal EMG is in the
range of 60 – 70 Hz.

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