PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

SPECIALIZATION COURSE IN CIVIL CONSTRUCTION

ÁREA: SUSTENTABILIDADE E GESTÃO DO AMBIENTE CONSTRUÍDO

August 2019

Professor Adriano de Paula e Silva

Professor Cristiane Machado Parisi Jonov

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

1. PATHOLOGY IN BUILDINGS - HISTORY

− Recent theme - 60s and 70s

− Gameleira Exhibition Pavilion / Belo Horizonte – 04/02/71
− Paulo de Frontin Elevated / Rio de Janeiro – 11/20/71
− Introduction to the curricula of Engineering Schools

2. PATHOLOGY AND THERAPY

− The pathology of constructions is the branch of engineering that studies the symptoms, the
mechanisms, the causes, the origins and the consequences of deficiencies of
constructions

− Pathology means not meeting the desired performance

− Construction therapy is the branch of engineering that deals with correction of
pathological problems presented by constructions
Building Pathology

It is the part of engineering that studies the

symptoms, the mechanisms, the causes and
the origins of building defects,
that is, it is the study of the parts that
make up the diagnosis of the problem.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
3. DIAGNOSIS OF THE PROBLEM

In order to succeed in therapeutic measures, it is necessary that the study

previously, the diagnosis of the problem has been well conducted
The complete diagnosis involves several aspects:

− Symptoms: also called lesions or defects

− Mechanism: pathological problems arise from what are known as vices
constructive. Knowledge of the process is essential for defining the
therapy
examplea crack in a beam resulting from bending cannot be
simply obstructed, at the risk that it may manifest again in another
local

− Origin: definition of the phase of the construction process in which it originated

phenomenon

− Causes: The causative agent of the problem must be identified.

− Consequences: The problem compromises the safety of the structure or its
hygiene and operating conditions?
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
4. SYMPTOMS

Pathological problems, except for rare exceptions, present manifestations

external characteristics that allow for the beginning of the study of the problem. The
the most common symptoms in concrete structures are:

− the fissures;
− the efflorescences;
− as excessive arrows;
− the stains;
− corrosion of the reinforcements;
− concreting nests (segregation)
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
5. ORIGIN

− Definition of the stage of the construction process

examplebending moment crack in beam - inadequate design or
inferior quality of steel?

− The identification of the origin of the problem allows for the definition, for judicial purposes,
who committed the failure
example:
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
For reinforced concrete, the origins of pathologies can be classified
me:

− Design deficiencies;
− Execution deficiencies;
− Poor quality of materials, or inappropriate use of them;
− Claims or fortuitous causes (fires, floods, accidents, etc);
− Inadequate use of the structure;
− Improper maintenance
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
The incidence level of each origin varies from country to country, depending on
shown below:
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
Through the study of HELENE & FIGUEIREDO (2003), it is found that the
pathological manifestations often originate from the
phases of the project and planning, as presented in the figure below.

Figure - Origin of pathological problems regarding the stages of production and use of civil works.
Source: Adapted from HELENE & FIGUEIREDO, (2003).
PATHOLOGY OF BUILDINGS
As mentioned earlier, the durability of buildings is linked to
quality and durability presented in them, but even with all
the technological advancement in recent years has not led to a reduction in
pathological problems.

FIGUEIREDO & O'REILLY (2003) state that "the environment nowadays is more
more aggressive than that of decades ago, in addition to the improvement of techniques
of more advanced sizing and therefore more economical, also
negatively interfere with the durability of buildings.

Thus, FIGUEIREDO AND O’REILLY (2003) also conclude that the structures of
contemporary reinforced concrete structures are increasingly vulnerable to
early appearance of pathological manifestations.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
− Design errors in the building structure

• A definition of the acting loads or combinations of them;

• Deficiency in the structure calculation;

• Insufficient or incorrect detailing;

• Sizing errors;

• Absence of lintels and counter-lintels in the openings;

• Absence of 'structural feeling'.

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
− Errors in the execution of the structure

• Lack of professional training of the workforce;

• Lack of plumb, square, and alignment of structures/masonry;

• Excessive deflections in slabs (early deformation, for example).

− Errors in the use of the structure

• Demolition and opening of openings in structural masonry;

• Overtaking of cargo on bridges;

• Changes in the use of the structure.

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
6. CAUSES

The agents causing pathological problems can be various:

(a) Charges;

Variation of humidity;

Intrinsic and extrinsic thermal variations in concrete;

(d) Biological, physical, and chemical agents;

e) Incompatibility of materials;

(f) Atmospheric agents;

Each cause will correspond to a more suitable and more lasting therapy.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
7. COMMON PATHOLOGIES AND THEIR CAUSES

Cracks and fissures:

− By thermal movements;
− By hygroscopic movements;
− Due to overloads;
− Excessive deformations of the structure;
− Foundation outlines;
− Shrinkage of cement-based products;
− Chemical changes of construction materials;
− Delayed hydration of lime;
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
− Attack by sulfates;
− Corrosion of reinforcements;
− Pathologies resulting from humidity

8. CONSEQUENCES

− Pathological problems are evolutionary and tend to worsen over time.

over time, in addition to causing other problems associated with the initial
exemploa flexural moment crack can lead to corrosion of
armor

− Excessive deflections in beams and slabs can cause cracks in walls

− The repairs will be more durable, easier, and much cheaper when
mais cedo forem executadas
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
9. DIAGNOSIS AND THERAPY

To initiate an appropriate therapy, according to CÁNOVAS (1988), it is necessary to

follow the following procedures:

Inspection for mapping symptoms;

The procedure begins with the inspection, where an attempt is made to identify the
symptoms of the existing pathologies in the structure; through mapping
two symptoms identified through a visual examination of the structure.

Collection of data and information;

This procedure generally complements the data obtained during the inspection.
and assist in the quantification of damages (geometric measurements, evolution in
time, as well as in the knowledge of the conditions prior to the damages of
building, assessment of concrete resistance.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
Know the history of the structure;

This history is a fundamental part of choosing the therapy and its analysis must
take into account the date of construction, the person responsible for the construction, the
executive project for review and analysis, the knowledge of materials
used (cement, sand, steel, additive, water/cement ratio) and details
on the use of the structure (overloads, accidental actions).

Carrying out analyses and tests;

In many cases, the historical survey and inspection are not sufficient,
it is necessary to carry out analyses and tests that allow clarifying the
symptoms, mechanisms and causes of structural pathologies.

CÁNOVAS (1988) also suggests the organizational chart, shown in the next figure,
of activities to be carried out in the solution of a pathological process.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
10. MATERIALS USED IN RECOVERY

Example:
 Pathology of Constructions

11. RECOVERY COSTS

Regarding the construction conditions, one can have two situations.

different

− The building will be rehabilitated, restoring the conditions for which

had been developed;

− The construction will be reinforced, having its support condition increased by

relation to the previously developed

The recovery costs vary depending on the time of manifestation and

detection of the pathology:

− Still in the design phase

− During the construction execution
− Utilization phase of the construction - if there is preventive maintenance
− Utilization phase of the construction - if corrective maintenance is necessary
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
The relationship of the high costs associated with corrective interventions was
presented by SITTER, in the 1980s, through the following figure of
cost evolution.

Figure - Law of cost evolution, SITTER's law (SITTER, 1984 CEB-RILEM)

PATOLOGIA DAS CONSTRUÇÕES
Analyzing the previous figure for the stages of design, execution,
preventive maintenance and corrective maintenance must be:

Project:

Any measure taken at the project level with the aim of increasing the
protection and durability of the structure, such as increasing the
coverage of the reinforcement, reduce the water/cement ratio, etc., corresponds
to number 1 of the Relative Cost axis of the Figure;

Execution:

Any extra project measure taken during the execution of the work implies a
cost five times higher than the cost that would have been incurred if this measure
had been taken at the project level, to achieve the same degree of
protection and durability;
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
Preventive maintenance:

Any measure taken in advance and with foresight, during the usage period
the maintenance of the structure can be associated with a cost of twenty-five
times greater than that necessary if the decision to obtain a certain degree of
protection and durability had been taken into account in the design.

Corrective maintenance:

They correspond to the work of diagnosis, prognosis, repair, and protection.

of structures that already show pathological manifestations. To this activity
one can associate a cost of one hundred and twenty-five times higher than the cost of the
measures that could have been taken at the project level.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
CRACKS IN BUILDINGS

1. GENERALITIES

Among the pathological problems that affect buildings, cracks

are particularly important because:

− They are the warning of a potential dangerous state for the structure;
− They can lead to a compromise in the performance of the work in
service (water tightness, durability, acoustic insulation, etc.);

− Psychological constraint that the fissuring of the building exerts

about your users
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
2. EARLY RISE

− The trinkets may begin to appear, congenitally, soon in

architectural project of the construction;

− This is often related to the designer's lack of knowledge.

about the technological properties of construction materials
employees;

− Incompatibility between the architecture, structure, and design projects

foundations usually lead to stresses that exceed
resistance of construction materials, giving rise to the problem of
fissures.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
3. DURABILITY

− The presence of cracks is harmful to the durability of the structure;

− In the case of reinforced concrete structures, durability remains
committed to facilitating the penetration of aggressive agents to
reinforcements and the concrete mass itself;

− Cracks larger than 0.3 mm should be analyzed, cracks smaller than

0.5 mm are considered microcracks.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

COMMON OPENINGS IN PATHOLOGIES

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

DURABILITY
Ability of a product to maintain its
performance above acceptable pre-levels
established, under the conditions provided for use and
with maintenance, for a period of time
What is your lifespan.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

DURABILITY
Durability is associated with:
−The durability of materials and components;
−To use;
−To the environment;
−To the maintenance actions.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

BUILDING MAINTENANCE
Maintenance: a set of activities to be
made to conserve or recover the
functional capacity of the building and its parts
meet the needs and
security of its users.

ABNT – NBR 5674 – Maintenance of buildings

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

BUILDING MAINTENANCE
Compreende todas as atividades que se realizam
in the components, elements and equipment of
a building, with the aim of maintaining its
functional performance or its parts, within
acceptable levels, at a compensatory cost.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

CONSERVATION
Conservation is related to those
routine activities performed daily or
so, with small intervals of time in between
interventions, directly related to the operation and
to the cleaning of the building, creating suitable conditions
for your use. For example: lubrication of
gears and pulleys of elevators.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

REPARATION
The repair is related to activities
preventive or corrective actions taken before the
building or any of its constituent elements
attain the minimum acceptable performance level without
that the performance recovery exceeds the
initially built level. For example:
replacement of an elevator button where the
LED does not light up.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

RESTORATION
Restoration is related to activities
corrections made after the building or some of
its constituent elements reach levels
below the minimum performance level
acceptable, without recovery of performance
surpass the initially built level. By
example: replacement of an elevator cable that
presented broken, preventing the use of the
same.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

MODERNIZATION
Modernization is related to activities
preventive and corrective aiming for recovery
performance exceeds the initially set level
built, establishing a new level of quality
for the building. For example: installation of
Daffeenos elevator systems, allowing that the
same, in case of power failure, be still
thus led to the ground floor and have their doors
opened automatically, this system before
nonexistent.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
4. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

− All materials used in the

constructions are subject to
dilations with the increase in temperature
stretching and contractions with their decrease;

− For a given temperature variation,

the intensity of dimensional variation
it is different for the various materials
under construction;
 Pathology of Constructions
− To assess the thermal movement undergone by a component
one must be aware of the temperature cycle it has been subjected to;

According to the BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT, the amplitudes of

variation of the temperatures of the building components can
be quite pronounced.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
In the most common case of buildings, the main source of heat that
The sun is the deity of its components.

According to LATTA, the surface temperature of the outer face of slabs and
walls can be estimated as a function of air temperature (Ta) and
of the solar absorption coefficient a.

Table - Estimate of the surface temperature of slabs and walls.

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
EXAMPLE

SLAB EXERCISE

DETERMINE THE SURFACE TEMPERATURE OF A SLAB

CONCRETE, WITHOUT THERMAL INSULATION, EXPOSED TO THE SUN, IN A
LOCAL WHERE THE AMBIENT TEMPERATURE IS 35ºC.

Tc= 5 (Tf-32) / 9

Tf= 9 Tc5 + 32 = 9 x 35 / 5 + 32 = 95ºF

Tmax= 95 + 75 X 0.65 = 144ºF 62ºC

Tmin= 95 - 10 = 85ºF 30ºC

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
FISSURES CAUSED BY
THERMAL MOVEMENTS

FORMATION MECHANISMS

Restrictions

The elements and components of a construction are subject to

temperature variations, which result in a variation
dimensional of building materials (expansion or contraction).

The movements of expansion and contraction are restricted by

various links that involve the elements and components,
developing stresses in the materials that could cause the
appearance of cracks.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
2. DIFFERENTIATED MOVEMENTS

The main differentiated movements occur due to:

Joining materials with different thermal expansion coefficients,

subjected to the same temperature variation (for example,
differentiated movements between bedding mortar and
masonry components.

Exposure of elements to different natural thermal demands

(for example, coverage in relation to the walls of a building).

Variation of temperature along the same component (by

example between the exposed face and the protected face of a slab of
coverage).
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
INADEQUATE PROJECTS:

The observations made should be taken into account in the project.

of the building.

Unfortunately, the differentiated movements between

components, due to temperature variations are not
taken into account by the designers, not even in a way
qualitative.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
3. TYPICAL SETTINGS

In general, flat roofs are more exposed to changes.

natural thermal processes than the vertical enclosures of buildings,
occurring differentiated movements among the horizontal elements
and verticals.

Even the shaded slabs are affected by the effect of these phenomena, as
part of the heat energy absorbed by the tiles is radiated to the
slab.

In this case, thermal movements occur as a function of

several factors:
nature of the material of the tiles;
height of the air mattress between the roof and the slab;
ventilation intensity in the attic.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

CRACKS IN BUILDINGS

Among the pathological problems that affect buildings, cracks

are particularly important because:

− They are a warning of a potential dangerous state for the structure;

− They can lead to the compromise of the project's performance in
service

− Psychological constraint that the cracking of buildings exerts

about your users.
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

DURABILITY
Durability is associated with:
−On the durability of materials and components;
−To use;
−To the surroundings;
−To maintenance actions.
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

DURABILITY
The ability of a product to maintain its performance above the levels
acceptable pre-established, under stipulated conditions of use and with
maintenance, during a period of time that is its useful life.
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

BUILDING MAINTENANCE
Maintenance: a set of activities to be carried out for
to preserve or recover the functional capacity of the building and of
its constituent parts to meet needs and security
of its users.

ABNT – NBR 5674 – Maintenance of buildings

PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

Expansion joint view in hydraulic tile flooring -

drying and damage along the entire length of the joint filling material
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

View of water infiltrations and damage to the slab and beam of the garage
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

CRACKS CAUSED BY
OVERLOAD PERFORMANCE

1. GENERALIDADES
• The action of overloads can produce cracking of components.
structural elements, such as pillars, beams, and walls.

• The overload can originate from the poor use of the building, or due to
errors in the structural calculation or execution of the piece.
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

Approximate view of the front of the property

PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

View of the room at the back of the property – door and window frames removed
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

View of the building floor in the area of masonry demolition

PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

2. ACTING LOADS ON THE STRUCTURES OF BUILDINGS

• NBR 6120/80 - Loads for the calculation of building structures

• Permanent load: this type of load consists of its own weight

of the structure of all fixed construction elements and installations
permanents.

• Accidental load: it is any that can act on the structure of

buildings according to their use (people, furniture, materials)
various, vehicles, etc.
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

• Minimum values of vertical loads – Examples

Local Load
(kN/m²)
1.BibliotecasSala de leitura 2.5
Room with bookshelves 6.0
2. Buildings: Bedrooms, living room, dining room, kitchen, and1.5 bathroom
residential
3.Schools Corridor and classroom 3.0
4.Houses of Including the weight of the machines 7.5
machines
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

3. MASONRY WALLS

• Subsystem of the building formed by elements that divide the

internal environments control the action of undesirable agents
(intruders, winds, rains, dust, noises, etc), still constituting
support and protection for the building's installations.

• The masonry is components built on site by the union between

components (blocks, bricks) and binding element (mortar,
constituting a monolithic set. They can be derivation or
structural.
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

Advantages of masonry

• Ease, low cost of components, and availability of materials

cousins.
• They are not pollutants, being 100% recyclable when discarded.

Disadvantages of masonry

• Low productivity.
• Requires coatings to achieve a smooth texture.
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

Numerous factors intervene in the final resistance of a masonry to

compression efforts, such as:

• Mechanical resistance of masonry and mortar components

settlement.

• Differentiated deformation modules of masonry components.

 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

• Adhesion power of the mortar used.

• Components installed with joint binding produce

masonry with significantly higher resistances than those
set with plumb joints.
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

• The resistance of the masonry wall does not vary linearly with the
the resistance of the masonry component nor with the strength of the
mortar for setting.

• In general, cracks in axially loaded masonry

start to appear long before the limit loads are reached
break
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

The cracks that manifest in the masonry, resulting from

loads are generally verticals originating from deformation
transversal of the bedding mortar and the own ones
components.

In specific cases, horizontal cracks may appear in

due to the crushing of the mortar for setting or the
failure of low-strength masonry components to
compression.
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

A fundamental fact in the cracking of masonry is the presence of

openings of doors and windows, where pronounced occurs at their vertices

stress concentration.

The cracks in the openings are addressed by the construction of beams.

about the openings (headers) or under the openings (sills).
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

The application of concentrated loads on masonry, without the use of

of suitable devices for voltage redistribution, can generate
the appearance of inclined cracks from the point of application
of the load.

Example of scissors or beams supported directly on the

masonry.
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

4. COMPONENTS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

• The loading action, whether anticipated or not in the project, can result in
the cracking of reinforced concrete components, without that
necessarily means rupture or instability of the components.

• The occurrence of cracks in a reinforced concrete component causes

a redistribution of stresses along the cracked component and in the
neighboring components, so that the request ends up being
absorbed in a globalized manner by the structure or part of it.
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

Diagonal crack view in the ceiling slab of the room originating from
undersizing of the reinforcement
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

FISSURES CAUSED BY
EXCESSIVE DEFORMATION OF THE STRUCTURE

• The development of more refined methods of calculation, manufacturing

of better quality steels and cements, has made the structures
increasingly flexible.

• This makes it essential to analyze the deformations more carefully.

of structures and their consequences.
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

• Beams and slabs naturally deform under their own weight.

of the other permanent and accidental loads and even under the effect of the

shrinkage and slow deformation of concrete.

• The originated arrows may be incompatible with the capacity of

deformation of walls and other components that integrate the
buildings.
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

• NBR 6118:
The arrows measured from the plane that contains the supports, when
they will not exceed 1/300 of the theoretical span in all actions.
except in the case of balances, for which they will not exceed
1/250 of the theoretical length of the swings.

• In practice, this recommendation has not received the due attention from
part of the Brazilian calculators, frequently being present,
cases of cracks in masonry caused by deflections of
structural components.
 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS

• The deformations of the structure tend to introduce into the masonry

tensile and shear stresses, causing cracks with different
settings.
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

PATHOLOGIES DUE TO SOIL AND ISSUES

FOUNDATIONS

FOUNDATIONS

Result from the need to transmit loads to the ground by

construction of a structure

In current cases, it costs between 3.0% and 6.0% of the cost of the work.
ranging from 10.0% to 15.0% depending on the structure and
of adverse underground conditions.

Your behavior can be influenced by various reasons: structural,

solos, execution procedures, materials used, etc;
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

2. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

NBR 6122 - Design and execution of foundations.

Shallow and deep foundations.

Deep foundations - at least 3.0 m deep.

Shallow foundations: blocks, footings, slabs.

Deep foundations: piles, caissons.

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
CONSTRUCTION PATHOLOGY
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
Pathology of Constructions

3. IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

All foundations under load present settlement because the

solos are deformable materials, but they should not occur
soil rupture

There is a need for control of the differential settlement, some

regulations set a limit of L/1000, where L is the smallest span
considered
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

4. DISPLACEMENTS IN FOUNDATIONS

Recalque is the deformation of the soil when subjected to loads,

provoking movement in the foundation that, depending on the
Intensity can result in serious damage to the structure.

When a foundation element shifts vertically, it is

configured an absolute settlement. The difference between the settlements
the absolute of two elements of the foundation is called subsidence
differential.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

5. LACK OF SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION

LOGEAIS (1982) suggests that more than 80% of cases of bad

the performance of foundations in small and medium works is
related to the absence of underground investigation. Examples:

Foundations in heterogeneous soils/landfills

Inadequate type of piles for the subsoil

6. INSUFFICIENT SUBSOIL INVESTIGATION

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

7. FOUNDATION DESIGN PROBLEMS

Foundation project

The design of foundations is a mix of science and art.

For the development of a foundation project, it is necessary to

considered various elements.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

7-1.Topography of the area

Planialtimetric survey;

Data on slopes and hillsides;

Data on erosion.

7-2.Geological data

Subsoil investigation;

Maps, aerial photos;

Studies on previous experiences in the field.

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

7-3.Data from the structure to be built

Type and use of the new work;

Structural system;

Loads (actions on the foundations).

7-4.Data related to neighboring constructions

Type of structures and foundations;

Number of floors and existence of basements;

Possible consequences of excavations and vibrations caused

for the new work.

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

8. CARES IN EXECUTION

Excavation of the work below the neighboring foundations.

There may be the deconfinement of foundations and partial collapse or

total of the structure

Breakage of drainage and sewage pipes.

Disposal of effluents to the soil.

Erosion strips on the land.

Reclamations or collapse of the construction (COPASA, Quimberlita).

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Current problems of the

executive process
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

9. POST-CONCLUSION EVENTS OF FOUNDATIONS

Change in the use of buildings

― Unforeseen expansions in the original project

Change in the use of neighboring lands

Execution of large excavations near buildings

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

10. TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENTS

10-1.Due to design errors

Error in settlement prediction;

Insufficiency in surveys, probing, and tests;

Non-consideration of soil heterogeneity;

Not considering the presence of landfill, rubble, or pits;

Ignore variations in the water table level.

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

10-2.Due to execution errors

Deep foundations with loose soil at the base;
Deviation of the tip of the stake due to the presence of boulders;

Lack of widening at the base of the piles.

10-3. Due to soil problems

Lack of soil uniformity;
Distinct consolidation of the landfill;

Foundation between cut and fill.

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Specify the loads, the

HOW TO AVOID
materials, places of
● Analyze land and implementation, the settlements
neighborhood. admissible.
● Conduct tests with bases Execute the foundations
in knowledge more suitable for
geotechnical and standards of
enterprise based
ABNT. the requesting loads and
● Consider situations of load capacity of
cut and fill. land.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Drop in the water table;

Compaction of deep layers (softer soil);

Unbalanced loading in the structure;

Influence of the pressure bulb of the major work;

Construction of an annex at a different time than the construction of the building

original.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
11. APPEARANCE OF CRACKS

Under the effect of external loads, all soils, to a greater or lesser extent
deformation proportion.

If these deformations are differentiated along the plane of the

foundations of a work, high intensity tensions will be
introduced into its structure, potentially generating the appearance
of cracks.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
12. TYPICAL CONFIGURATIONS

In general, the cracks caused by settlements

differentiated are inclined, sometimes confusing with the fissures
caused by deflection of structural components.

However, in relation to the last ones, they have larger openings,

lying down towards the point of greatest subsidence.

Localized crushing in the form of scales and variation in

openings of the fissures.

The trincas extend to the support ground of the foundations;

Cracks appear on both sides of the wall;

PathologyofConstructions

Situation cut landfill

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PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN BUILDINGS
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ANEMONE BUILDING
Located in the coastal city of Ubatuba/SP.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

REPAIR METHODS

● Methods for foundation reinforcement are, in good

part, adaptations of the existing systems.

● The main concern in the specification and design

is to allow the original foundations and the reinforcement

work as a single system.

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

MEGA STAKES
● The equipment used is small in size;

● They can work in confined and high spaces.

difficulty of access;

● The execution of this stake makes no noise, uses no water and

not refrigeration;

● They are driven using hydraulic jacks, connected to

small electric/hydraulic units;
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PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

MEGA STAKES
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

ROOT STAKES
● Use of medium or large-sized equipment.

● The root pile is a concrete pile "in situ".

● It is performed in a vertical or inclined direction.

● They work in hard-to-reach places.

● Drilling, with water circulation, capable of crossing

mats, concrete blocks or embed them in rock.
● The execution process of this pile does not cause vibrations, which

it allows its use in any industrial work situation.

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PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

ROOT STAKES
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

ROOT PILES
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTION

WIDENING OF PILE BASE

● It consists of increasing the support area of the pile.

● When the existing armors are not

dimensioned for the enlarged part, it can be
performed the anchoring of reinforcements with the

use of adhesive resins for adherence between

o concreto original e o novo.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Widening of the pile base

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

SOIL REINFORCEMENT
The most common methods are of the JET GROUTING type;

Improved physical characteristics of the soils, such as resistance,

deformability and permeability;

● JET GROUTING is a process capable of which a jet of the slurry

of cement introduced into the ground at high pressure in such a way that

disaggregate or soil mixing with it forming, thus, columns

of high mechanical resistance and low cement
permeability
PATHOLOGY OF BUILDINGS

SOIL STRENGTHENING
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

FOUNDATION REPLACEMENT

● Execution of new foundations, with

greater load capacity than the
original, without the need
of being of the same type.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

FOUNDATION REPLACEMENT
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
THE TOWER OF PISA

Most famous leaning building in the world;

Causes of your inclination:
Unstable solos;
Poorly planned foundation;
Built in the 12th century: soil studies were precarious.
As a consequence, it was not known how deep the
foundations should have to anchor the tower in the ground
stable;
During construction, they noticed the slope and started to
build taller walls on the lower side to compensate
visually, increasing the loading on the ground and the
inclination;
Underwent renovations in 1997 to reduce the slope, which
increased each year.
Pathology of Constructions
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
To prevent the occurrence of pathological manifestations in
foundations and bases, one must:

Analyze not only the land but also the neighborhoods;

Conduct appropriate surveys based on knowledge

geotechnical and in the ANBT standards;

To adjust the foundation to the type of terrain;

Consider the situations of excavation/embankment;

Specify loads, materials, quantities, locations of

implementation, acceptable settlement, etc;

Monitor pathological signs throughout the lifespan of

estrutura, como trincas e fissuras.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS DUE TO WATER ACTION

1. GENERALIDADES

Functional damage to the building;

• User discomfort and in extreme cases they may

affect the health of the residents;

Damage to equipment and property present indoors of

buildings;

Financial losses.

137
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
 ORIGINS PRESENT IN:
Concrete manufacturing
Moisture coming from the execution of Mortar production
construction Execution of paintings

Covering (roofs)
Humidity arising from the rains Walls
Terrace slabs

Moisture brought by capillarity (moisture Earth, through the water table

ascensional
Walls
Humidity resulting from leaks in networks Roofs
of water and sewage Floors
Terraces
Condensation humidity Walls, coverings, and floors
Parts with little ventilation
Bathrooms, kitchen and garage
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
 ORIGINS PRESENT IN:
Concrete manufacturing
Moisture coming from the execution of Mortar production
construction Execution of paintings

Covering (roofs)
Humidity arising from the rains Walls
Terrace slabs

Moisture brought by capillarity (moisture Earth, through the water table

ascensional
Walls
Humidity resulting from leaks in networks Roofs
of water and sewage Floors
Terraces
Condensation humidity Walls, coverings, and floors
Parts with little ventilation
Bathrooms, kitchen and garage
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

The moisture in walls and floors can originate as follows

these three means:

Due to leaks or the breakage of water pipes

cold, hot, sewage and rainwater;

Through the penetration of rainwater;

By the percolation of water originating from the soil, through ascent

hair

142
.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

It causes changes on the surface, requiring recovery or even

even the need to redo coatings, generating large
financial losses;

The growth of mold is directly linked to the existence of

humidity. Molding on walls dampened by is common
water infiltration or pipe leakage;
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

To prevent the emergence of mold, it must be addressed already in the design phase.
measures such as ensuring ventilation, lighting and
adequate sunlight for the environments;

If prevention is not possible, and the damage occurs, it is necessary to

surface cleaning using fungicidal solutions;

Exchange of materials that were contaminated for others that

resist the growth action of mold.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Mold is understood as the colonization by various populations.

of filamentous fungi on various types of substrates, including
the inorganic mortars (SHIRAKAWA et al., 1995).

The development of these microorganisms in coatings

internal or facade causes aesthetic changes to ceilings and
walls by the formation of dark, undesirable, black spots,
brown or green, or occasionally light spots
whitish or yellowish;

The multiplication of fungi can lead over time to the

deterioration of the construction and the triggering of allergies
respiratory issues and asthma in predisposed individuals.
Figure: Project in which the ventilation of the bathrooms is
prejudiced.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

2. MOISTURE IN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Hygroscopic changes cause variations

dimensional in construction materials; the increase in
humidity causes the expansion of the material and the decrease of
humidity contraction.
In the case of the existence of ties, cracks may occur.
in the elements and components of the construction system.
The amount of water absorbed by a material of
construction depends on the factors of porosity and capillarity.
The variations in the moisture content of a material cause
irreversible and reversible movements.

149
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Irreversible and reversible movements:

Irreversible movements: occur

usually right after the material is manufactured
They originate from the loss or gain of water.
until the hygroscopic moisture is reached
balance of the manufactured material.

Reversible movements: occur due to

variations in the moisture content of the material,
delimited to a certain interval,
even in the case of drying up or becoming saturated
completely the material.

150
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

151
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Moisture problems can manifest in buildings in

all its constructive components.

A classification, adopted internationally, where it seeks

reconciling the origin of the phenomenon and the way it manifests is
thus represented:

construction humidity;

absorption moisture and capillarity;

infiltration humidity;
condensation humidity;
accidental moisture.

152
 Construction humidity
Originated from the construction work of the buildings, remaining
during a certain period after the completion of the work, decreasing
then gradually until it disappears.

Absorption and capillarity moisture

It originates from the absorption of water present in the soil by the foundations of the
walls and floors, migrating to facades and floors.

Infiltration moisture
Coming from rainwater that penetrates buildings through the
constituent elements of its exterior envelope.

153
 Condensation humidity
It originates from water vapor that condenses on surfaces, or in
interior of construction elements.

Accidental moisture
Originating from leaks in the distribution and/or collection system
waters of the building.

The frequency of occurrence of these types of moisture is associated with

age of construction, to the climate, to the materials and construction techniques
applied and at the level of quality control carried out in constructions.

154
 3. MOISTURE PATHOLOGIES

The pathological manifestations of humidity present various forms.

of manifestation among which we can cite:

Spots, blisters, and efflorescences

Mold formation
Appearance of cracks and fissures

155
Stains

The spots can manifest accompanied or not by the

formation of efflorescences or vesicles.

For efflorescence to occur, it is crucial to have the presence of

the dissolving action of water (FIORITO, 1994).

The vesicles can be caused by a number of factors such as

how, the existence of limestone not completely extinct,
organic matter contained in aggregates, clay clods
dispersed in the mortar or other impurities (BAUER, 1994).

156
Stains

In the case of waterproof paints, efflorescence settles.

between the paint layer and the plaster layer, thus,
compromising the adherence between both. These paints are
also responsible for the formation of bubbles that result from
percolation of water through the masonry accumulating between the
coating and paint.

157
158
Appearance of cracks and fissures

The cracks caused by variation in the humidity of the materials of

construção, entre um caso e outro, podem apresentar variação de
opening based on the hygrothermal properties of the materials
and the amplitudes of variation of temperature or humidity
(THOMAZ, 1989);

A characteristic type of crack occurs vertically in the

middle third of the wall, which can be caused both by contraction
of the drying of the masonry component as well as its
reversible movements;

159
In a study conducted by the IPT with hollow blocks of
only-cement, one can observe the appearance of
vertical microcracks in the block walls, after the
occurrence of rains that caused moistening
the walls;

As the blocks had been used in the work with

age over 90 days, it was deduced that the fissures
were caused by reversible movements
originated by the sudden variation of humidity;

160
Reversible or irreversible movements can originate
also detachments between masonry components and
mortar for bedding due to numerous
factors such as adhesion between the mortar and
masonry components, type of joint adopted, module
of material deformation in contact, properties
hygroscopic properties of these materials and intensity of the variation
de umidade (THOMAZ, 1989);

161
Horizontal cracks can also appear at the base of the
walls, where the masonry components are in direct contact
with the soil absorbs its moisture, presenting
differentiated movements in relation to the upper rows
that are subject to direct sunlight and water loss due to
evaporation. These cracks are almost always accompanied by
by efflorescences which facilitate their diagnosis;

Another very characteristic type of fissure caused by

humidity is that present on the top of walls due to absorption of
water (from rain or even from dew), since the
the top wall mortar moves differentially
in relation to the body of the wall and ends up standing out from it.

162
When it comes to humidity, the problems can be
present in all phases of a construction, from
project until the maintenance;

It is essential that the defects are corrected in the phase of

project, prevention is the best solution;

The choice of materials used and types of systems

constructive actions will help to prevent the emergence of damages
for moisture, just like a waterproofing of
quality.
Attention must be paid to the choice of waterproofing, as already
repairs and a new application are costly;

It is common to fail to pay attention to the system of

waterproofing, resulting in costs higher than the first
waterproofing;

The microclimate in which it is located should also be taken into account.

insert the building, which is of utmost importance for one to
avoid water action as an agent of pathologies;

The incidence of rain and wind can vary from one facade.
for another, requiring special characteristics and care.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
FISSURES CAUSED BY
Chemical Changes in Construction Materials

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

Construction materials are susceptible to deterioration due to

action of chemical substances, mainly acidic solutions.

Buildings that house dairy factories, beers, alcohol, sugar,

salt, cellulose, and chemical products in general can have their materials
and components seriously damaged by these substances.

In these cases, the pathologies often manifest in the form of

of leaching.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

2. CARBONATION

When concrete is exposed to carbon dioxide (CO2), the solution

the alkalinity existing in its pores can have its pH reduced;

The high alkalinity (pH > 12.0) is mainly due to the presence of
calcium hydroxide - Ca(OH)2– stemming from chemical reactions of
cement hydration can be reduced;

Ca(OH)2+ CO2This is CO3(pH < 9.4);

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

The carbonation neutralizes the alkaline nature of the cement paste.

hydrated, compromising the protection of the steel against corrosion;

When the front with low pH reaches the surface of the reinforcement, the
the passivating film is broken, which may lead to corrosion;

The extent of carbonation can be easily determined.

by treating a recently exposed surface with a
phenolphthalein solution - the Ca (OH)2it turns pink and the part
colorless carbonated
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

3. ACTION OF CHLORIDES

The presence of chloride ions in reinforced concrete structures is a

the main causes of corrosion of your reinforcements;

In addition to seawater and marine atmospheres, chlorides can

to be present in industrial waters, accelerator additives for setting
that contain Ca Cl2, cleaning of ceramic floors and facades with
muriatic acid, etc;

Chloride ions act both in the initial phase, with the punctual rupture.
from the movie passive agent, as in the acceleration of the propagation of the process
corrosive;
 NBR 6118/2014 - Durability.

Classes of environmental aggressiveness (CAA)

Concrete quality
Nominal coverage of concrete
Bridge pillar base near the wet ground
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

The ingress and progression of chlorides in concrete can be

explained by a dual mechanism, of suction and diffusion;

Diffusion is the transport of matter through matter, such as by

example of gas diffusion in the atmosphere, at a given
environment

Diffusion can also occur between two solids or through a gas.

particles through a solid body;

The phenomenon can be studied through FICK's Laws, for

modeling of diffusion with distance and time;
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Deterioration of the reinforcements

Caused by corrosion
Resulting from electrochemical processes;
Intensifies with the presence of aggressive elements;

The buildings are inserted in environments each

more aggressive
Industrial environments;
Pollution in large cities.

175
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Deterioration of the reinforcements

The concrete reinforcements are invariably installed in the

proximities of the surface;
Essential to protect the steel bars from contact with the
external environment:
Well done densification;
Proper covering of the reinforcements.

These care practices are often neglected.

176
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Occurrence of cracking
Gateway for water and air/pollutants;
They can initiate or accelerate corrosion processes.

Corrosion reactions produce iron oxide.

Volume much higher than that of steel;

There is loss of section and resistant capacity of the steel;

Iron oxide expands and worsens the existing cracks in the concrete;
The fissures can evolve into a flaking condition.

177
Deterioration of
armor

17
8
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
4. CHANGES INVOLVING THE FORMATION OF PRODUCTS
EXPANSIVE

Delayed hydration of the slurries.

Attack by sulfates.

Alkali-aggregate reaction.

Corrosion of concrete reinforcements.

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
Delayed hydration of the chalices

A well-hydrated lime does not present free lime oxides and

magnesium, the poorly hydrated slates may present quite high levels
elevated levels of these oxides, which are eager for water.

If there is moisture in the component throughout its lifespan, the

free oxides tend to hydrate, leading to an increase in
volume around 100%.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

In bedding mortars, expansion can cause cracks.

horizontal on the cladding, following the joints of
settlement.

Meanwhile, the most harmful effect is on the coatings in

mortar, whose expansion tends to produce widespread damage in
coating (cracks, peeling, disaggregation and
powderiness).
 Pathology of Constructions
6. ATTACK BY SULFATES

It is the generic name for a series of interrelated processes and to

sequential times that lead to the decomposition of the cement matrix of
concrete, causing a decrease in its mechanical properties,
dimensional stability and durability.

The calcium aluminate (C3A) , constituent of cement, can react

with sulfates in solution forming a compound known as
etringita. This reaction (C3A > 5%) is accompanied by great
expansion.

For the reaction to occur, the presence of cement is necessary.

water and soluble sulfates (hence the joint use of cement
the plaster is dangerous).
Building Pathology
Pathology of Constructions

Sulfates can come from soil, contaminated waters, ceramics

manufactured with clays with high levels of soluble salts, etc.

Water can come from rain on poorly waterproofed surfaces,

humidity of the building (floor washing, for example), etc.

The pathologies are in the form of horizontal and vertical cracks, almost
always together with flowering.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
7. FORMS OF CONCRETE DEGRADATION DUE TO ATTACK
FOR SULFATES

According to METHA (2008), the sulfate attack can manifest itself in

two forms:

Expansion and cracking of concrete;

Progressive decrease in resistance and loss of mass.

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
8. PREVENTION AGAINST SULFATE ATTACK

Minimize the access of sulfate-containing water to the structure (design

structural, drainage, barriers, coatings;

Produce low permeability concrete (mix design);

Selection of suitable cementitious materials (for example, use of

sulfate-resistant cement - RS, with low % of C3A);

Produce concretes with a low water-cement ratio.

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
9. ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION (AAR)

It is not a process of deterioration due to the direct action of the environment.

environment

The RAA comes from chemical reactions involving the alkalis of

Portland cement (K2The one and only2O) and certain reactive siliceous minerals
present in the aggregate;

It causes expansion and cracking of the concrete, leading to loss of

resistance and modulus of elasticity, possibly favoring the
appearance of other concrete deterioration processes, such as
the carbonation and corrosion of the reinforcements;
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Popping and exudation of a viscous liquid (STANTON, 1940) in

description of investigations of cracked concrete structures in
California;

Pathological manifestations perceived in structures located in

humid environments, the presence of moisture is a necessary condition for
appearance of these manifestations;

Some examples are dams, bridge pillars, breakwaters,

rainwater galleries, etc;
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
10. PREVENTION AGAINST ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION (AAR)

Use of non-reactive aggregates.

Use of materials (cements, mainly) with low content of

alkalis.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

11. ACID RAINS

Urban and industrial environments release into the atmosphere a

series of compounds that can precipitate in dry or wet form
on the surface of the constructions;

Acid rain is the result of the combination of gases

present in atmospheric pollution with hydrogen present in
atmosphere in the form of water vapor;

Sulfur oxides produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4) with pH

between 2.2 and 4.5 (normal rain has an approximate pH of 5.0);

Acid rain, when it hits concrete structures, can

to provoke its degradation, mainly through matrix dissolution
cementitious.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

12. MARINE ATMOSPHERE ZONE

Although this region is not in direct contact with the sea, it

the reinforced concrete structures receive a quantity
reasonable amount of salts, capable of creating salt deposits on the surface,
where wetting and drying cycles occur;

Winds can carry salts in the form of solid particles.

or as drops of saline solution
The amount of salts decreases in relation to the distance from the sea,
significantly reducing from 700m (MEIRA, 2004);

The most common form of degradation in this area is corrosion.

the corrosion of concrete reinforcements due to the action of chloride ions.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
13. SUMMARY OF CONCRETE DETERIORATION MECHANISMS

Surface deterioration Abrasive: movement of objects or materials (equipment

heavy, grains in the silo
Erosion: contact with solid particles suspended in liquids
(sewage lines)
Cavitation: formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles
(sudden changes in flow direction)
Deterioration of reinforcements • Corrosion of steel

Deterioration of aggregates • Alkali-aggregate reaction

Deterioration of the matrix Sulfate attack

cementitious Attack by sea water
Acid attack
Carbonation
Salt crystallization

SKALNY (2007)
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
FISSURES CAUSED BY
RETREAT OF CEMENT-BASED PRODUCTS

THE PHENOMENON OF RETRACTION

The shrinkage is associated with the deformation in cement pastes.

mortars and concrete without any type of
loading;

In general, the main cause of shrinkage is the loss of water.

from the cement paste;
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
2. FORMS OF RETRACTION
Three forms of contraction are the most important in products to
cement base:

Chemical shrinkage: the chemical reaction between cement and water occurs
with volume reduction;

The hydration of cement results in products that possess

characteristics of adhesion and hardening;

Aluminates (C3A) they hydrate at a higher rate than

the silicates, their rapid hydration should be slowed down
some form (in general, through the use of gypsum);

The silicates (C3S and C2S) make up about 75% of the cement
Portland, having a dominant role in the development rate of
mechanical resistance of concrete
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Drying shrinkage: the excess amount of water used

in the preparation of concrete or mortar for obtaining the
required workability remains free within the mass.
During its evaporation, there is a reduction in volume;

The retraction is greater the faster the speed is.

evaporation of water, which depends on the air temperature,
temperature of the concrete, relative humidity of the air and speed of
wind

The release of water from the hardened concrete, kept in the environment
unsaturated is the cause of shrinkage due to drying;

A part of this movement is irreversible

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Shrinkage due to carbonation:

Ca(OH)2+ CO2 CaCO3+ H2O

The reaction is accompanied by a reduction in volume;

- A process resulting from carbonation, in addition to the reduction of

Alkalinity is the shrinkage of concrete;

The shrinkage resulting from carbonation is less important than

the neutralization of the alkaline nature of cement paste;

Carbonation increases shrinkage at intermediate moisture levels.

but not at 25% and at 100%;
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
3. RESTRICTION AND FRACTURING

The restriction of concrete components can induce compression.

or traction, with the last being the most important;

There are two forms of restriction: external and internal;

The external restriction occurs when the movement of the section of a

concrete element is totally or partially impeded by
rigid adjacent elements;

The internal restriction exists due to the gradient of temperature and humidity in
interior of the section;
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

An example of internal restriction is that of a mass of concrete in the

which develops heat due to the hydration of cement;

The heat is dissipated from the surface of the concrete, occurring a

temperature gradient in the section and a differential shrinkage between the
surface and the interior of the concrete;

The phenomenon can occur when large volumes of concrete

simple (unarmed) are launched into gravity dams
(concrete mass), where there is a risk of thermal cracking;
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
4. CONCRETE WORK OF LARGE MASSES (DAMNS)

The hydration reaction of cement, being exothermic, causes the

elevation of temperature in considerable amounts;

The amount of heat generated is a function of the cement content;

The increase in temperature will be greater the worse the

conditions for thermal energy dissipation;

The low dissipation generates tensions that can lead to dissipation of the
concrete;

Cracks will occur when the tensile stresses developed

exceeding the tensile strength of concrete.
Pathology of Constructions
The launch temperature control is one of the best
ways to prevent thermal cracks in concrete structures;

A usual technique is to add ice or cold water to the concrete mixer.

during the preparation of the concrete;

The temperature increase will be greater, the worse the conditions are.
conditions for thermal energy dissipation;

The launch interval between layers is also used for the

maximum temperature control of concrete;

The cracks will occur when the tensile stresses developed

upper forms of tensile strength of concrete.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
GAMBALE, 1998
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
5. FACTORS THAT INTERVENE IN RETRACTION

Chemical composition and fineness of cement:

the shrinkage increases with the fineness of the cement, its chloride content
(CaCl2normally used as a setting accelerator additive
alkalis (K2The and The2O).

Amount of cement added to the mixture:

the greater the consumption of cement, the greater the shrinkage.

Nature of aggregates:
greater contraction for the aggregates with greater absorption capacity of
water (basalt and lightweight aggregates, for example).
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
Grain size distribution of aggregates:

the finer the aggregates, the greater the quantity will be

necessary cement paste to cover them, and it will be greater,
therefore, the contraction.

Amount of water in the mixture:

the higher the water/cement ratio, the greater the shrinkage will be
drying.

Conditions for healing:

If the evaporation of water begins before the end of the catch
the binder, the shrinkage will undergo a great increase.

Relative humidity of the air:

In the more humid environments, the shrinkage is less.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTION
RECOVERY AND STRUCTURAL REINFORCEMENT

I- FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

The need to repair or strengthen a structure by restoring its

safety and increasing its durability has been increasingly
common because:

Sleeker structures;

More intense requests.

PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

More aggressive environments;

Awareness and greater knowledge in maintenance;

Recovery or increase in property value;

Infeasibility of demolition and reconstruction;

Changes in construction use.

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

II- MATERIALS

1. CONCRETE

It requires a trait that improves some of its

natural characteristics.

They may be necessary:

high initial resistances;

absence of drying shrinkage;

high adhesion to the substrate;

low permeability.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTION

The acquisition of these characteristics can occur through:

plasticizers, water reducers, waterproofing agents, etc;

- mineral additives such as blast furnace slag, fly ash,

microsilica, etc;

as a rule, low water/cement ratio.

The mentioned requirements reduce the feasibility of employment of

ready-mixed concrete on site for use in repairs and reinforcements.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

The selection of material depends on the pathological problem in question.

characteristics of the region to be repaired (horizontal, vertical, 'above

"head"), aggressiveness of the environment, etc.

CEMENT BASE GRAVES

Fluid and self-compacting material in its freshly mixed state,

formulated to fill cavities and subsequently become

adhesive, resistant, and non-shrinking in the hardened state.

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS

Convenient for repair in hard-to-reach places or in cases of

densely armed sections.

3. POLYMERIC MORTARS

Portland cement mortars modified with polymers.

They can be formulated with acrylic resins such as methacrylate or with

PVA-based resins.
 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
4. EPOXY BASE MORTARS

They tolerate pH in the range of 2.0 to 10.0.

The epoxy has good physical and mechanical properties, as well as excellent

adherence to various types of surfaces.

III-PREPARATION AND CLEANING OF THE SUBSTRATE

1. PREPARATION

These are prior treatments of the component surfaces.

structural.
PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
Examples:

Manual scarification (chisel, hammer);

Grinding disc (rotary sanders);

Mechanical scarification (pneumatic hammer);

Manual sanding (common sandpapers);

Electric sanding (sandpaper discs);

Manual brushing;

Tapping with a hammer.

 PATHOLOGY OF CONSTRUCTIONS
2. CLEANING OF SURFACES

Set of procedures applied to structural elements

before the application of the repair materials.

Examples:

Cold water jet under high pressure;

Hot water jet under high pressure;
Low pressure water jet;
Washing with acidic solutions;
Washing with alkaline solutions;
Removal of surface oils and greases;
Pressurized compressed air jet;
Vacuum aspiration.
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IV- REPAIR MATERIAL APPLICATION TECHNIQUES

Assembly of shape and conventional filling;

Form assembly and pumping;

Dry pack grouting;

Pre-placed aggregate and grouting;

Dry shotcrete;

Wet shotcrete;

Injection of cracks and/or fissures;

Application of overlays.
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V- TREATMENT OF FISSURES

1. TECHNIQUES TO ADOPT

Treatment depends on the cause.

Active fissures (thickness variation).

Passive fissures.

Need or not for structural reinforcements.

Superficial (simpler treatments).

Cement paste with expanding additive.

Deep (epoxy resins).

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2. GENERAL OBJECTIVE

Creation of barrier (active and passive fissures).

Prevent the harmful transportation of liquids and gases.

Avoid the attack on the armors.

3. ACTIVE CRACKS

Elimination of the generating cause (making it passive)

Do not restore monolithism.

Fracture in another location.

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Sealing / covering of the outer edges.

Filling with elastic and non-resistant material.

Coexistence with the established pathology.

Prevention of concrete degradation.

4. PASSIVE FISSURES

Closure of the crack with a resistant / adhesive material.

Epoxy resin injection.

The request returns to being monolithic.
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5. CRACK INJECTION

Exigible for openings greater than 0.1 mm.

Filling the space formed between the edges of the gap.

Passive cracks – rigid materials (epoxy or grouts).

Active fissures – elastic materials (acrylic resins or

polyurethane.
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6. RESINAS EPOXÍDICAS

Inactive fissures – Non-retractable products.

High resistant and adhesive capacity.

Good behavior in the face of aggressive agents.

Quick hardening.

Liquid bicomponents - better quality.

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7. INJECTION PROCEDURE

Drilling holes along the development of the crack.

D = 10 mm and 50 mm ≤ l ≤ 300 mm.

Cleaning of the slot (compressed air).

Fixation of plastic tubes in the holes.

Sealing with epoxy glue (spatula).

Tube-to-tube injection.
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8. STITCHING OF CRACKS (STAPLING)

Active fissures (isolated).

Arrangement of additional reinforcements (straps).

Debatable (can create fissures in adjacent areas).