4

CHAPTER
Turning Tides:
11th and 12th Centuries
It is the same India which has withstood the shocks of
centuries, of hundreds of foreign invasions, of hundreds
of upheavals of manners and customs. It is the same land
which stands firmer than any rock in the world, with its
undying vigour, indestructible life. Its life is of the same
nature as the soul, without beginning and without end,
immortal; and we are the children of such a country.
— Swami Vivekananda

Fig. 4.1. A bas-relief depicting soldiers and elephants preparing for war
(from Lakṣhmaṇa Temple, Khajuraho)

1. Why are the 11th and 12th

The Big centuries seen as a period of 4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
Questions transition in Indian history?
2. Which new powers emerged
during this period? What
were the essential features of
Tapestry of the Past

their economic, military and

administrative systems?
3. What high accomplishments
in art, architecture, literature,
science, etc., do we come across 97
during this period?

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 1025: Rājendra 1026: Mahmūd 12th
Chola’s naval destroys and century:
expedition to plunders the Rise of the
Southeast Asia Somnath temple Kākatīyas

950 1000 1050 1100

1010–55 : Reign of
Paramāra king Bhoja
1000–08: Mahmūd
of Ghazni’s 1014–44: Reign of
campaigns against Rājendra Chola I
the Hindu Shāhis

985–1014: Reign of
Rājarāja Chola I
Fig. 4.2.

Turkic: In the previous chapter, we saw the Arabs’ repeated attempts

Refers to to invade and dominate north India and how, in the end, those
peoples,
languages, incursions had little overall impact on India. The 11th and 12th
and centuries tell a different story: invasions by Turkic powers
cultures
penetrated much deeper into north India, despite stubborn
historically
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

associated resistance from native kingdoms.

with a vast
region We begin the chapter with an invasion and end the chapter with
stretching another, with a very brief account of the wars and destruction
across
that came in their wake. However, many Indian rulers also
Central
Asia, all flourished in this time period, successfully battling the invaders
the way to at times (when they were not battling each other), conducting
Turkey and
Siberia. naval expeditions, creating astonishing monuments or projecting
India’s influence abroad. Many poets, philosophers, saints and
scientists belong to this period and their works continue to
illuminate us even today.
In this chapter we will only explore a few of these important
events, figures and accomplishments.
98

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 1192: 2nd Battle of Tarain:
Muhammad Ghurī defeats
Pṛithvīrāja III

1150: 1206: Deaths of

Bhāskarāchārya Muhammad Ghurī
composes Līlāvatī and Bakhtiyār
Khiljī

1150 1200 1250 1300

12th century 1205-06:

(1st half): Angkor Bakhtiyār
Wat temple Khiljī
constructed in defeated in
Cambodia Kāmarūpa

THINK ABOUT IT
A word of caution: In Grade 8 you will read a ‘Note on
History’s Darker Periods’. Briefly, it explains how history has
recorded war, conquest and destruction more than peace, good
governance or creativity, and how, the world over, historians
have sometimes hesitated to draw attention to such darker
periods. Our approach is that it is better to face them and
analyse them so as to understand what made such developments 4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

possible and, hopefully, help avoid their recurrence in future. In

addition, we should not forget that while past events cannot be
erased or denied, it would be wrong to hold anyone responsible
for them today.
Tapestry of the Past

The Ghaznavid Invasions

In the 9th and 10th centuries, several kingdoms confronted
each other in present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan.
Across those two regions and all the way to Punjab, there ruled a 99

Chapter 4.indd 99 27-11-2025 11:10:24

 powerful dynasty known as Hindu Shāhis. With the help of
several other Indian rulers, they resisted several attempted
invasions. This resistance made a difference, since they
controlled the Khyber Pass, one of the main mountain passes
through the Hindu Kush range (see Fig. 4.3 and 4.4). In the course
of India’s history, many invaders used this pass to enter the
Subcontinent; for at least 2,500 years, it was also a major trade
route, connecting the Subcontinent to Central Asia and beyond,
and the route Buddhist scholars and monks travelled.

LET’S EXPLORE
Observe the sketch of the Khyber Pass (Fig. 4.3). What kind of
terrain does it depict?
Æ What advantages would it offer to an army trying to
reach the Indus plains? But also, what dangers?
Æ Thinking of the caravans of traders that passed through
the Khyber Pass for many centuries, let’s ask the same
questions about the advantages as well as dangers.
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

Fig. 4.3. The Khyber Pass, as painted by a British military

officer in about 1847.

Ultimately, however, a Turkic power — the Ghaznavids — after

100 defeating a rival Muslim kingdom, overran the Shāhis, ruled at

Chapter 4.indd 100 27-11-2025 11:10:25

 the time by Jayapāla. As their name indicates, the Ghaznavids’
capital was Ghazna, today’s Ghazni in Afghanistan. In the first
decade of the 11th century, their ruler Mahmūd (often referred
to as ‘Mahmūd of Ghazni’) accomplished this final conquest,
first defeating Jayapāla and, in 1008, overcoming Jayapāla’s son
Ānandapāla after a long battle, despite the support Ānandapāla
received from several rulers from north India. The outcome of
that battle, waged in northern Punjab, meant that Mahmūd now
had easy access to the Indus plains and beyond.

THINK ABOUT IT
We will meet later in this chapter the Persian scholar al-Bīrūnī,
who accompanied Mahmūd in some of his campaigns. He
wrote in his memoirs on India, “The Hindu Shāhiya dynasty
is now extinct, and of the whole house there is no longer the
slightest remnant in existence. We must say that, in all their
grandeur, they never slackened in the ardent desire of doing
that which is good and right, that they were men of noble
sentiment and noble bearing.”
What conclusions can we draw from this remark by someone
in Mahmūd’s entourage?

DON’T MISS OUT

Mahmūd assumed the title of ‘sultan’, a word of Arabic
origin which means ‘authority’ or ‘power’; in the Muslim

4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

world, it came to refer to a sovereign ruler or king. In
Grade 8, we will come across sultans who established their
kingdoms or ‘sultanates’ in India, the dominant one being the
Delhi Sultanate.

In all, Mahmūd conducted 17 campaigns in India; after each

Tapestry of the Past

one, he would return to Ghazni with huge amounts of booty.

Although he met with strong resistance (from the Chandellas
of central India, among others) and was close to defeat on a few
occasions, his large army’s rapid marches and daring cavalry
attacks, with archers on horseback, were ultimately decisive.
101

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 70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

H IN DU N
35°N

35°N
SH ĀH IS
Khyber W E
Pass
us GH S
Ghazna ŪR
IDS
Ind

GHAZN CH
AVIDS ĀH

30°N
30°N

AM
ĀN Dhillikā

Go
us Ya Gang

mt
AS
Ind m a
PA

i
Ajayameru
un Gha Ga ARŪ
ba
l a
ra
gha nd
ak K Ā M hmaputra
am Mahotsavanagara Bra

si
Ch

Ko
AS

25°N
Prāgjyotiṣhapura

Ga
25°N

ELLAS
KY CHAND

ng
Son
LU

a
Aṇahilavāḍa
PARAMĀRAS AS
SEN
U
A

C Dhārā
H

Narmada Maha
nadi
Tapti BAY OF BENGAL
ARABIAN
20°N

20°N
G N
R

SEA
AN TE
AS
Go
S

da
EA

LEGEND va 0 250 500 km

ri
G

Capital city Kris

hna Krishna

70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E 90°E 95°E

Fig. 4.4. A few dynasties in northern and central India in the 11th and 12th centuries

When Mahmūd reached Mathura (in present-day western Uttar

Pradesh) in 1018, he found it to be a city of enormous wealth,
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

with a magnificent temple overlooking the city. Mahmūd’s court

historian al-Utbi, who chronicled his campaigns, wrote that even
“the pens of all writers and the pencils of all painters” would
be unable to describe the temple’s “beauty and decoration”.
Mahmūd destroyed it and plundered its treasure, then proceeded
to Kannauj, where he took one of the last Pratihāra rulers by
surprise, and looted and destroyed many temples. A few years
later, another campaign took him to Gujarat and to Somnath
(in present-day Saurashtra), which was then a bustling seaport.
Despite strong resistance from the locals and severe losses to
his army, after a few days of fighting Mahmūd gained the upper
hand, destroyed the Somanātha Śhiva temple and looted its
enormous treasures.
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 Fig. 4.5. Ruins of a temple complex in today’s Amb Shareef (northern
Pakistan), built during the rule of the Hindu Shāhis

LET’S EXPLORE
In later centuries, the Somanātha temple was rebuilt and
destroyed again several times; the existing temple was built
in 1950 and inaugurated the next year by the then President
of India, Rajendra Prasad. Why do you think it was decided to
fund the construction entirely from public donations?

Mahmūd died in 1030 in Ghazni, at the age of 58. About this time,
his nephew, Sālār Masūd, launched an attack on the Gangetic
region. According to oral history and to a 17th-century Muslim
chronicle, when he reached Bahraich (in modern-day Uttar
Pradesh), the local ruler Suheldev (or Suhaldev) successfully 4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
resisted the attack and Sālār Masūd fell in the battle.
Mahmūd’s campaigns involved not only destruction and plunder,
but also the slaughter of tens of thousands of Indian civilians
and the capture of numerous prisoners, including children,
Tapestry of the Past

who were taken to be sold on slave markets of Central Asia. His

biographers depict him as a powerful but cruel and ruthless
general, keen not only to slaughter or enslave ‘infidels’ (that
is, Hindus or Buddhists or Jains), but also to kill believers from
rival sects of Islam.
103

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 Al-Bīrūnī
Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī, a Persian scholar from
Khwārizm (in present-day Uzbekistan), was
a mathematician, astronomer, geographer,
historian and linguist all rolled into one. He
travelled widely and wrote prolifically, both in
Arabic and Persian, on nearly every branch of
knowledge known in his time.
Around 1017, al-Bīrūnī accompanied Mahmūd
of Ghazni on his campaign into India. He
learned Sanskrit, read Indian texts and
conversed with Indian scholars. The result
was an encyclopaedic survey of Indian
religion, philosophy, literature, geography,
Fig. 4.6. A 1973 postage stamp
and sciences, in which he discussed Indian
issued by the former Soviet intellectual achievements as best he could,
Union in memory of al-Bīrūnī often comparing them with those of Greek
(Uzbekistan was then part of the
Soviet Union). and Islamic traditions. In mathematics and
astronomy, al-Bīrūnī compiled what he
could gather from the works of Āryabhaṭa, Varāhamihira and
Brahmagupta, among others. In another work, he translated into
Arabic Patanjali’s Yogasūtras, a classic text on advanced concepts
and techniques of yoga.
At the same time, al-Bīrūnī noted the impact of Mahmūd’s
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 1

military campaigns on India’s scientific traditions: “Mahmūd

utterly ruined the prosperity of the country, and performed there
wonderful feats, by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust
scattered in all directions. ... This is the reason, too, why Indian
sciences have retired far away from those parts of the country
conquered by us, and have fled to places which our hand cannot
yet reach; to Kashmir, Varanasi, and other places.”

Bhāskarāchārya
While the production and transmission of scientific knowledge
did decline in north India a little later, they continued to
flourish in other regions. Born in 1114, probably in present-day
104 Maharashtra, Bhāskara II, better known as Bhāskarāchārya, was

Chapter 4.indd 104 27-11-2025 11:10:29

 one of India’s greatest mathematicians and astronomers. His family
counted several scholars and astronomers. His most famous works
(all in Sanskrit) are Līlāvatī, which uses lively riddles and problems
to teach basic mathematics; Bījagaṇita, on more advanced algebra;
and Siddhāntaśhiromaṇi (‘Crown of Treatises on Mathematical
Astronomy’), which deals with advanced astronomical calculations.
Many later scholars wrote commentaries on those works, and several
of them were translated into Persian during the Mughal period; as a
result, his influence in India and beyond was long-lasting. It would
take Europe a few centuries to rediscover some of Bhāskarāchārya’s
pioneering techniques.
In addition to his scientific knowledge, Bhāskarāchārya had a
gift for poetry and used this talent to make his writings enjoyable
to scholars and students alike. His works were full of examples,
with clear explanations, demonstrations and proofs, making them
favourite texts with students for centuries. Remember that you saw
such examples in your Mathematics textbooks of Grade 7. Here is an
example from Līlāvatī — see if you can find the solution!

Of a herd of elephants, half and one-third of the half went into

a cave, one-sixth and one-seventh of one-sixth were drinking
water from a river. One-eighth and one-ninth of one-eighth
were sporting in a pond full of lotuses. And the king of the
elephants was leading three female elephants. Tell me, how
many elephants were there in the herd?

4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

Tapestry of the Past

Fig. 4.7. A 17th-century manuscript illustrating another problem from

Līlāvatī, with a peacock perched on top of a pillar and a snake below. 105

Chapter 4.indd 105 27-11-2025 11:10:29

 Fig. 4.8. A painting depicting an Indian ruler brought to Mahmūd as a
prisoner (manuscript of a 15th-century historical work in Persian)

As Mahmūd did not attempt to establish a permanent base in

India beyond Punjab, historians have debated his motives
for conducting such destructive campaigns; they have often
suggested that plunder was the chief reason for his destruction
of temples in India. It is true that the larger temples often held
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

immense wealth, accumulated from the devotees’ offerings over

centuries, and would therefore be prime targets for plunder.
But it is also true that Mahmūd was keen to spread his version
of Islam to non-Muslim parts of the world, as we find from
contemporary evidence. Al-Utbi, for instance, noted, “Wherever
he went, Mahmūd plundered and sacked the country until it was
annihilated. He dug up and burnt down all its buildings, killed
those infidels and carried away their children and cattle as
booty. He mastered several other territories, and destroying their
temples, their sacred buildings, built mosques instead, making
the light of Islam visible.” Let us also refer again to al-Bīrūnī,
who, after explaining the origin of the śhivalinga worshipped
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 at the Somnath temple, recorded,
“The image was destroyed by the
Prince Mahmūd. He ordered the
upper part to be broken and the
remainder to be transported to
his residence, Ghazni. [A part of
the image] lies before the door
Fig. 4.9. A coin issued from Lahore by Mahmūd, with
of the mosque of Ghazni, on one side in Arabic and the other in Sanskrit, praising
which people rub their feet to Islam and Mahmūd as ‘nṛipati’ or king.
clean them from dirt and wet.”

Eastern India
While north India bore the brunt of the Ghaznavid raids, during
the 11th century the scene in eastern India was very different. After
the decline of the Pālas, the Sena dynasty (Fig. 4.4) emerged as the
dominant power over much of Bengal, with their capital at Nādīya
(now the Nadia district, which shares a border with Bangladesh).
Their relations with neighbouring Kāmarūpa (Assam) and Kalinga
(more or less present-day Odisha) seem to have alternated between
friendly and conflictual. While their predecessors, the Pālas,
patronised Buddhist institutions, the Senas promoted Hindu thought
and literature, hosting poets such as Jayadeva, author of the famous
Gītagovindam, which tells the story of Kṛiṣhṇa and Rādhā.
Let us follow the coast southward, into Kalinga where we encounter
the Eastern Gangas (Fig. 4.4), who had matrimonial alliances with
the Cholas (whom we will meet soon), yet also clashed with them a
few times, and with other neighbours as well. Nevertheless, by the
end of the 12th century the Eastern Gangas emerged as one of the 4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

most stable powers of eastern India, with their kingdom extending

‘from the Gangā to the Godāvarī,’ as some of their inscriptions claim.
This dynasty initiated the construction of the Jagannātha temple at
Puri, and, in the mid-13th century, of the grand Sun temple at Konark.
Tapestry of the Past

Further South
Let us continue our journey southward. From the previous chapter,
do you remember the Western Chālukyas (with their capital at
Kalyāṇī or Kalyāṇa) and the Eastern Chālukyas (Fig. 4.10)? The
107

Chapter 4.indd 107 27-11-2025 11:10:31

 former was a major power in the Deccan, its rule extending at
some point to the Narmada River in the north. As the Eastern
Chālukyas were gradually absorbed into the Chola sphere of
influence through marriage alliances, their capital Vengi and
the fertile region around it became the object of fierce wars
between the Cholas and the Western Chālukyas. As a result, the
Western Chālukyas faded away, while the Kākatīyas and the
Hoysalas grew stronger, eventually replacing them. Let us now
turn to them.
70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E

TERN Go
WES da
Orugallu va
ri
Kalyāṇī S S
Kr A K YA
ish
L U K YA īY LU
na CHĀ S T Ā
A CH
N Vengi
K
ra

ER
ad

K
15°N

bh

15°N
ST
ga

EA
n

S
Tu

ARABIAN Dvārasamudra Pennar BAY OF

LA

SEA BENGAL
L A S
A
YS

Kānchĩ
Kave
Velapura ri
O

C H O
H

Gangaikoṇḍacholapuram N

Tanjāvūr W E
Madurai

10°N
10°N

AS

S
ḌY

LEGEND
Ṇ

0 250 500 km
PĀ

Capital city
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

INDIAN OCEAN

70°E 75°E 80°E 85°E

Fig. 4.10. A few dynasties of south India in the 11th and 12th centuries

The Kākatīyas
In 12th century, the Kākatīyas cemented their authority over
much of present-day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 4.10),
with their capital at Orugallu (today’s Warangal), where they
built a fort with impressive stone toraṇas or gateways (Fig. 4.11).
While some of their kings composed works in Sanskrit, they
also patronised Telugu literature; the Thousand Pillar temple at
Hanamkonda is a fine example of their temple architecture.
108

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 The Kākatīya rulers promoted a
strong local administration based
on village self-governance; they
developed an efficient revenue
system and an irrigation
infrastructure that supported
agricultural prosperity.

The Hoysalas
The Hoysalas originated in
southern Karnataka. There is
an interesting legend behind
the name. When their founder
Sāla went to a Jain temple for
worship, he found an ascetic
meditating; as a tiger appeared
on the scene, the ascetic said
“Poy, Sāla” — which, in old
Kannada language, means
“strike, Sāla”. Sāla promptly
obeyed the ascetic and saved
Fig. 4.11. A Toraṇa or gateway to the Warangal
his life; in return, the ascetic fort of Kākatīya period
blessed him with kingship.
According to this legend mentioned in inscriptions (and depicted
in several temples), the name ‘Hoysala’ is said to originate from
the ascetic’s command!
In our period, Velāpura (today’s Belur) and Dvārasamudra
4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
(Halebidu) became the Hoysalas’ capitals. Under King
Viṣhṇuvardhana, they broke away from Chālukya overlordship,
challenged the Cholas, and gradually extended their sway over
most of present-day Karnataka. Their rule saw cultural and
literary development in Kannada language, but their most
Tapestry of the Past

visible legacy is their unique style of temple architecture, with

intricately carved stone pillars, sculptures and panels. The
temples at Belur and Halebidu are particularly famous, and
are among three Hoysala temples recognised by the UNESCO as
world heritage monuments.
109

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 Fig. 4.12. A partial view of the Hoysala temple at Somanathapura (near Mysuru).
Note the complexity of the entire design, the numerous elaborate statues, and the
friezes at the bottom.

The Cholas, masters of the seas

The Cholas, whom we briefly met in the previous chapter, were
a powerful and influential dynasty that rose to prominence
in present-day Tamil Nadu, with Tanjāvūr (present-day
Thanjavur), Gangaikoṇḍacholapuram, and Kānchī (present-day
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

Kanchipuram) as their capital cities (Fig. 4.10).

From 985, Rājarāja Chola ruled for some three decades
and conquered parts of present-day Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh. His inscriptions record his conquest of ‘islands of the
sea’, which most historians identify with the Maldives; and
he conquered the northern part of Sri Lanka, including the
kingdom of Anurādhapura. He built the Bṛihadīśhvara (also
known as Rājarājeśhvaram, after Rājarāja) temple at Thanjavur,
a masterpiece of architecture and engineering (we will visit
it in Grade 8). And, although the Cholas were predominantly
Shaivites, Rājarāja facilitated the construction of a Buddhist
vihāra (monastery) at Nāgapaṭṭinam (then an important port of
110

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 the Cholas) by the ruler of the Śhrīvijaya Empire across the Bay
of Bengal (in parts of present-day Malaysia and Indonesia).
Rājarāja’s son Rājendra Chola I, who also ruled for nearly
30 years, expanded the empire further, conquering parts of
present-day Odisha and Bengal. He commemorated those
victories with the title ‘Gangaikoṇḍachola’, that is, “the Chola who
seized (or brought) Gangā” — a reference both to his campaigns
in the North and to the sacredness attached to Gangā. Rājendra
also expanded his father’s conquest of northern Sri Lanka, which
became an integral part of the Chola Empire for half a century
or so, until the Sri Lankan king Vijayabāhu I managed to drive
the Cholas out after several battles.

Fig. 4.13. Entrance to the temple built by Rājendra Chola at Gangaikoṇḍacholapuram.

4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

The temple commemorates his victory over north Indian rulers.

Rājendra I is celebrated for his successful naval expedition

against the king of the Śhrīvijaya Empire. The conflict had
its roots in the maritime trade with China: under the Cholas,
trade relations with China thrived, as archaeological evidence
Tapestry of the Past

and inscriptions confirm; Rājendra even sent a diplomatic

mission to China. But one of the sea routes passed through
the Strait of Malacca (a narrow strip of sea between Malaysia
and the Indonesian island of Sumatra), which the Śhrīvijaya
king controlled, and this created competition with the Cholas.
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 Rājendra sent his navy, which defeated the Śhrīvijaya forces and
captured their capital. However, he did not try to occupy the
defeated empire; it was a punitive expedition, conducted with
the support of many Indian merchant guilds, and it seems to
have achieved its objectives.

DON’T MISS OUT

We should not conclude from Rājendra’s expedition against
the Śhrīvijaya Empire that the latter’s relations with India
were conflictual. On the contrary, there were deep cultural
and generally peaceful relations between these two regions
of Asia. For instance, a Śhrīvijaya ruler made donations to
Nālandā and asked the Pāla king for land to create one more
monastery there; the request was granted, as a copper-plate
found at Nālandā recorded.
Similarly, with Sri Lanka: strong cultural links apart,
Vijayabāhu I married a princess from Kalinga.

LET’S EXPLORE
In the painting Fig. 4.14, can
you make out who is the king
and who is the guru? What does
the king’s posture and general
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

attitude express?

Back home, the Cholas engaged in

large public works, such as roads to
facilitate communications, tanks,
wells and canals for irrigation, and
artificial lakes. But their frequent
and extensive conflicts with
several neighbouring kingdoms, in
particular the Western Chālukyas,
the Pāṇḍyas and the rulers of Sri
Fig. 4.14. An ancient painting of Lanka, drained their treasury
Rājendra Chola with his guru (at the
112 Bṛihadīśhvara temple) and contributed to the decline of

Chapter 4.indd 112 27-11-2025 11:10:37

 the empire. By the 13th century, the Chola empire had shrunk
considerably and was finally absorbed by the Pāṇḍyas.

Back to the North

We now travel back to the north, as a second phase of foreign
invasions was going to have a more lasting impact on India.

The Paramāras
The Paramāras were originally vassals of the Pratihāras and
the Rāṣhṭrakūṭas; in the second half of the 10th century, they
emerged as an independent power in Malwa (a region in
present-day Madhya Pradesh), with Dhārā (present-day Dhar) as
their capital. Their most famous king was Bhoja, who ruled from
1010 for almost half a century and led numerous campaigns,
extending his kingdom from the Konkan region on the west coast
to parts of Rajasthan; he was among the Indian rulers who sent
their forces to assist the Hindu Shāhi rulers against Mahmūd
of Ghazni.
After Bhoja’s death in 1055, the Paramāras gradually declined,
partly because of conflicts with neighbouring powers.

The scholar-king
Bhoja Paramāra should not be confused with
King Bhoja of the Gurjara-Pratīhāra dynasty,
whom we met in the previous chapter and who
lived in the 9th century. Bhoja Paramāra was
known for his efficient governance and public
works. He is credited with founding of the town 4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

of Bhojpur and constructed a vast lake between

Bhojpur and the city of Bhopal (whose name
comes from ‘Bhojpal’ — the ‘dam’ or ‘fort of Bhoja’)
by harnessing the waters of several rivers; it
Tapestry of the Past

served both irrigation and water management

purposes. Only a small portion of that lake,

Fig. 4.15. A modern statue of

King Bhoja on the bank of the
Bhojtal Lake in Bhopal
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 called ‘Bhojtal’ remains near present-day Bhopal, while remains of
earthen or stone embankments can still be seen further away. A local
proverb (in Hindi) remembers the lake’s original size by declaring,
“If there is a lake, it is Bhopal’s lake; all others are just ponds”!
Bhoja also built the impressive Bhojeshwar Temple, which remains
an architectural marvel even though it was never completed.
Bhoja was a generous patron who supported scholars and promoted
Sanskrit literature. Under his patronage, arts and sciences flourished,
so that his capital became a renowned centre of learning that
attracted scholars, poets, and artists from across India.
Bhoja himself was a noted scholar and a prolific author who wrote on
a wide range of subjects. His works include Samarāṅgaṇa Sūtradhāra
a long treatise on architecture, town planning, temple construction,
sculpture and mechanical devices; treatises on governance and on
Sanskrit poetics; a commentary on Patanjali’s Yogasūtras; and texts
of medicine, among other texts attributed to him.
His reputation as a wise and learned ruler became legendary,
inspiring numerous stories and folk tales.

A turning point: the Ghūrids in India

As we saw, Mahmūd of Ghazni was the first notable invader
of India in the period we are looking at. After him, his
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

Ghaznavid Empire was under attack from several sides in

Afghanistan and beyond, and soon disintegrated. The chiefs of
Ghūr (present-day Ghor), a mountainous region in Afghanistan
to the west of Ghazni, were earlier vassals of the Ghaznavids, but
now seized the opportunity to take control of Ghazni and build up
their power.
Their leader Muhammad, now the sultan of Ghūr (and often
called ‘Muhammad Ghūrī’ or ‘Muhammad of Ghor’), soon
brought parts of Punjab and Sindh under his rule. His attempts
to expand into Gujarat failed, as he was defeated in 1178 by the
Chaulukya king Mūlarāja II at the foot of Mount Abu. In another
version of this battle, it was Queen Nāīkīdevī, Mūlarāja’s mother,
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 who led the victorious army on horseback, with her son in her
lap. Merutunga, a Jain scholar from Gujarat, recorded the event
in a semi-historical chronicle, but as he wrote over a century
later, historians are divided as to whether the queen or her son
should be credited for this victory; anyhow, sources do record
Muhammad’s defeat there.

DON’T MISS OUT

The Chaulukya dynasty, also known as the Solanki dynasty,
which ruled parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 10th to
the 13th centuries, is distinct from the Chālukya dynasty of the
Deccan, which we met in the previous chapter. Its capital was
Aṇahilavāḍa, which is today’s Patan. (They are also sometimes
called ‘Chālukyas of Gujarat’.)

Meantime, the Chāhamānas, also known as Chauhāns, were

a powerful Rajput dynasty that arose in nearby Rajasthan and
neighbouring regions. Its kings, apart from battling other Indian
dynasties, often repelled invaders such as Mahmūd of Ghazni.
In the 12th century, their conquests of
Delhi, Haryana, parts of Punjab and
Uttar Pradesh, apart from most of
Rajasthan, established their empire,
with its capital at Ajayameru (today’s
Ajmer).
Pṛithvīrāja III, often known today as
4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
Prithviraj Chauhan, waged many battles
with neighbouring kings, such as those
of Gujarat and Malwa. In 1191, he also
defeated Muhammad Ghūrī at Tarain
(modern-day Taraori in Haryana), but
Tapestry of the Past

within a year, Muhammad returned

with a larger army, and the two
clashed again. In this Second Battle of
Tarain, which witnessed fierce fighting,
Muhammad defeated Pṛithvīrāja and
Fig. 4.16. A later portrait of
executed him. Pṛithvīrāja III 115

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 Muhammad Ghūrī went on to capture Delhi. Unlike Mahmūd,
who merely plundered and withdrew, he sought territorial
conquest. Though he returned to Ghazni, he left behind trusted
military commanders to consolidate his gains — most notably
his general Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who later founded the Delhi
Sultanate (as we will see in Grade 8).

DON’T MISS OUT

Delhi was a flourishing city under the Chāhamānas. Their
inscriptions refer to it as ‘Dhillikā’, which was later shortened
to ‘Dhilli’ and ultimately evolved into ‘Delhi’.

Aibak encountered much resistance in his campaigns in

north India, but was able to expand the Ghūrids’ territory.
His army commander Bakhtiyār Khiljī (or Khaljī) conducted
campaigns in eastern India from the end of the 12th century,
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

Fig. 4.17. A gold coin issued in the name of Fig. 4.18. Also issued by Muhammad Ghūri,
‘Muhammad ibn Sām’ (Muhammad Ghūrī’s this coin depicts Goddess Lakṣhmī; this motif
formal name), depicting him as a conqueror had been widely used on coins since the
on horseback. Kuṣhāṇas, which is probably why Muhammad
decided to adopt it.

conquering Bihar and Bengal. On his way to Bengal, he

destroyed large Buddhist monasteries and universities such
as Nālandā and Vikramaśhilā, collecting huge booty and
slaughtering large numbers of monks. There is a consensus
among historians of Buddhism that this destruction of its
large centres of learning precipitated the decline of Buddhism
in India, although a few other factors may have also played
a role.
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 LET’S EXPLORE
Writing some 60 years after Bakhtiyār Khiljī’s campaign
through Bihar, the historian Minhaj al-Siraj Jūzjānī, recorded
in his Tabakāt-i-Nāsirī how Bakhtiyar’s forces captured a
‘fortress’ and “acquired great booty.” He adds, “The greater
number of the inhabitants of that place were Brahmans, and
all those Brahmans had their heads shaven; and they were
all slain. There were a great number of books there. … It was
found that the whole of that fortress and city was a college,
and in [their] tongue, they call a college bihār.”
Æ Remembering the meaning of vihāra and noting that
Nālandā was known in ancient inscriptions as ‘Nālandā
Mahāvihāra’, can you find two more clues in the above
passage to identify the ‘fortress’ near the Nālandā
university? (Hint: Who do you think these ‘Brahmans’
actually were?)

DON’T MISS OUT

Nālandā’s famous library,
spread over three multi-storey
buildings, contained lakhs
of manuscripts. The Chinese
pilgrims Yijing and Xuanzang
spent some time there, studying
manuscripts and selecting
4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries
Fig. 4.19. A partial view of Nālandā Mahāvihāra
many to take back to China.
After Bakhtiyār Khiljī’s attack, the library is said to have burned for
months. Tibetan scholars, who were both teaching and studying there,
fled back to Tibet with as many manuscripts as they could carry.
When Dharmasvāmin, a Tibetan monk, visited the site some three
Tapestry of the Past

decades later, he found it half ruined. Yet, a 90-year-old teacher, Rāhula

Śhrībhadra, was still instructing a class of about 70 students — perhaps
Nalanda’s last class …

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 As Bakhtiyār Khiljī pushed further east into Bengal around
1203–04, he caught the Sena ruler unaware at Nādīya, ending
the Senas’ control over much of Bengal. For reasons that are
not too clear, he then decided to attempt an expedition into
Tibet. However, on his way through Kāmarūpa in 1205, he was
confronted by the local ruler’s forces, who inflicted severe losses
on his army. The local population is said to have destroyed food
and fodder, in effect starving the invading army. Bakhtiyār
escaped with only a handful of his men and returned to Bengal
much weakened.
Muhammad Ghurī was killed in 1206; the same year, Bakhtiyār
Khiljī was assassinated, apparently by his own men. Their
territory in north India remained under the control of
Muhammad’s generals.

Governance, Trade and Cultural Life

We have seen much warfare in this period, which means that
every powerful king needed to keep a sizable army. This involved
considerable resources to employ the soldiers, supply them with
weapons, maintain horses and elephants (and, in parts of north
India, camels for transport of provisions). Powerful kingdoms
therefore needed an efficient administration to collect
tributes from vassals and taxes from the traders. The previous
chapter described the main features of such administrations;
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

there is no major change in this one, except with respect to

Muhammad Ghūrī’s system, which was more centralised and
granted temporary land assignments to officers in return for
revenue collection and military service. This would be further
developed during the period of the Delhi Sultanate, as we will
see in Grade 8.
Despite the political disturbances we have seen, India’s trade
with China and Southeast Asia kept growing during this period.
Among other evidences, coins and pottery from those overseas
regions have been found at many locations on India’s west coast,
which had many seaports as well as shipyards manufacturing
seafaring ships. While there was a brisk trade within India and
118 beyond, supported by a few powerful guilds, the mainstay of

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 Fig. 4.20. Kandāriyā Mahādeva Temple, Khajuraho

the economy was ultimately agriculture — which remains true

even today. The ancient texts often refer to agricultural produce,
whether it is rice and barley in the Ganga plains and Bengal,
saffron from Kashmir, spices from Kerala, ginger from Bengal,
wheat from northwest India, and cotton from western India
and the Deccan. Many rulers — we mentioned a few examples
in the previous chapter and this one — took care of irrigation
works, which could, to some extent, mitigate the vagaries of
seasonal rains.

4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

If the economy thrived, so did the arts, the literary production,
science (as we saw with Bhāskarāchārya), religious life and other
cultural aspects. In the previous chapter, we heard of Harṣha’s
Sanskrit compositions, and, in the present chapter, those of
Bhoja the scholar-king. We should add here the Chālukya ruler
Tapestry of the Past

Someśhvara III who, in the 12th century, authored Mānasollāsa,

an encyclopaedia covering topics ranging from astronomy and
architecture to music, medicine, cooking, and games — in effect,
a comprehensive guide to royal life and governance, with some
emphasis of the duties of kings towards their subjects. Many
large temples were built in this period across India; apart from 119

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 Fig. 4.21 & 4.22. Two huge modern statues: Rāmānujāchārya (left, in Hyderabad)
and Basaveśhvara (right, in Basavakalyana)

those we saw earlier in this chapter, we should mention the

Kandariya Mahādeva and the Lakṣhmaṇa temples, architectural
marvels among dozens of temples constructed at Khajuraho by
the Chandellas during these two centuries.
Several noteworthy thinkers appeared in these two centuries.
Among them, Rāmānujāchārya of south India was a
philosopher-saint who challenged the dominant philosophical
school of his time, Ādi Śhankarāchārya’s advaita vedānta (briefly
described in the previous chapter). Rāmānuja developed the
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

school of viśhiṣhṭādvaita vedānta, which sees the world and

individual souls as real, and emphasises bhakti and surrender
to the divine as the path to liberation.
Basaveśhvara (also known as Basavaṇṇa, or Basava in short)
was a royal minister at Kalyāṇī (modern Basavakalyana in
Karnataka), who left his position to become a social and religious
reformer. He founded the Lingāyat movement, which rejected
caste distinctions and ritualism and, instead, taught personal
devotion and dedicated work. Looking at the inner value of a
person rather than his or her social rank, Basavaṇṇa promoted the
equal spiritual potential of all men and women. His short poems
in Kannada (known as vachanas) strikingly convey his spiritual
120 and ethical vision as well as his firm devotion to his Lord.

Chapter 4.indd 120 27-11-2025 11:10:47

 These two thinker-saints had a profound impact on the culture
and society of south India in particular. Like other Bhakti saints
elsewhere in the Subcontinent, they helped make spirituality
more personal and accessible, breaking down some of the
existing social barriers.

LET’S EXPLORE
In Kalyāṇī, Basavaṇṇa established an anubhava maṇḍapa
(literally, ‘pavilion of experience’), where men and women
from every social, economic, religious or linguistic background,
including saints and philosophers, could assemble to discuss
all aspects of life, including moral values and religion.

Æ Why, in your opinion, did Basava want people from all

backgrounds to come together and exchange ideas?
Æ If something like an anubhava maṇḍapa existed today,
what important topics do you think people ought to
discuss there?
Æ What lessons can we draw from the anubhava maṇḍapa
spirit to create a just and civil society today?

Taking Stock
Like every transitional period, this one saw both change and
continuity.
The most visible change was the military campaigns by Turkic
invaders and the start of foreign rule in parts of north India,
which involved considerable plunder and destruction of 4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

temples, cities and centres of learning. This altered the power

equations in a profound way. It also marked the spread of Islam
as a new creed in India’s religious landscape. At the same time,
in the two centuries we focused on, large parts of northern India
Tapestry of the Past

and all of south India remained outside the hold of the Turkic
invaders. Neighbouring kingdoms often waged war against each
other, though alliances were not uncommon; on a few occasions,
native rulers even came together to form a coalition against a
foreign invader.
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 Fig. 4.23. The Angkor Wat temple in Cambodia

DON’T MISS OUT

The Angkor Wat temple in Cambodia (Fig. 4.23), constructed
in the 12th century by the Khmer king Sūryavarman II, is the
largest religious monument in the world. It was originally
dedicated to Viṣhṇu, with inscriptions in Old Khmer and in
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

Sanskrit, and enormous bas-reliefs depicting scenes from

the Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata. The temple’s five huge
śhikharas or towers symbolise Mount Meru, the mountain at
the centre of the cosmos in Hindu mythology. Architecturally,
Angkor Wat shares many features with south Indian temples,
though on a grander scale. Later in the 12th century, following
a change of political power, the temple was gradually converted
into a Buddhist one. This temple is one of numerous examples
of how India’s religious and aesthetic traditions profoundly
influenced Southeast Asian cultures.

Despite disruptions in the north, internal and external trade

122 continued and the merchant guilds survived and adapted.

Chapter 4.indd 122 27-11-2025 11:10:51

 External trade was also a vehicle for the spread of Indian culture
in Southeast Asia and China. Cultural traditions persisted in
much of India, with new schools of thought and belief, and many
literary and scientific compositions, not only in Sanskrit but also
in regional languages.
The lesson of the period, if there is one, is therefore resilience
in the face of conflict and the enduring power of knowledge,
learning and creativity.

Before we move on …
Æ The 11th and 12th centuries marked a turning point in
Indian history (hence the chapter’s title).
Æ In the 11th century, Mahmūd of Ghazni, after defeating
the Hindu Shāhis, conducting many raids into north India,
extracting much plunder, destroying temples and taking
away prisoners. He however did not seek to establish his
rule in India.
Æ In the 12th century, Muhammad Ghurī and his generals
conquered Delhi and large parts of the Gangetic plains, all
the way to Bengal, causing much destruction. Important
centres of learning, in particular, were left in ruins.
Æ Still, large parts of northern India and all of south India
remained outside the hold of the Turkic invaders. Powerful
kingdoms often waged war against each other, though
alliances were not uncommon.

4 – Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries

Æ Internal and external trade, art and literature, and
monumental architecture continued to thrive, and
elements of Indian culture travelled abroad, especially to
Southeast Asia and China.
Tapestry of the Past

Questions and activities

1. Why is the period under consideration in this chapter
regarded as a major transition in Indian history? Give two
examples each of change and continuity from this period.
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 2. Observe Fig. 3.27 in the previous chapter and draw a similar
‘star of dynasties’ gathering all or most of the dynasties that
appear in this chapter.
3. Taking a map of the Subcontinent, draw a geographical tour
that covers all or most dynasties in this chapter (you may
draw inspiration from some of the ‘travels’ the chapter’s
narration follows).
4. With the help of a map of India and Southeast Asia, can you
calculate the approximate distance that Rājendra I’s fleet of
ships had to navigate to reach their objective?
5. Match these two pairs:

(a) Eastern Gangas (i) Belur

(b) Chandellas (ii) Bṛihadīśhvara temple

(c) Paramāras (iii) Konark Sun temple

(iv) Kandāriyā Mahādeva

(d) Hoysalas
temple

(e) Cholas (v) Bhojeshwar temple

6. Working in groups, compare the dynasties in this chapter

and in the preceding one; create a table to list the dynasties
present in both, those that disappear from the preceding
Exploring Society: India and Beyond | Grade 7 Part 2

period, and those that appear in this chapter’s period.

7. Using the chapter and any additional reading, prepare
a short note explaining (1) why centres of learning like
Nālandā were important; (2) how their destruction may
have affected education and culture in India.
8. Why do you think Mahmūd of Ghazni carry out repeated
raids from Afghanistan into India, while Muhammad Ghūrī
sought territorial expansion into India and long-term
control? Write a short note on how their motives shaped the
outcomes of their campaigns.

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