1

Engineering Wallah Non-Tech AE/JE

Subject: Modern History
Advent of Europeans in India • The English set up trading posts in Madras (1639),
The arrival of European traders in India marked the Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690).
beginning of colonial rule. Several European un powers, • The Battle of Plassey (1757) and Battle of Buxar (1764)
including the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French, laid the foundation of British rule.
established trade relations and fought for dominance. • The British ruled India until 15th August 1947.

Portuguese (1498 – 1961) French (1664 – 1763)

• Vasco da Gama (Portugal) was the first European to • The French East India Company was founded in 1664 by
reach India in 1498 at Calicut (Kerala). Colbert under King Louis XIV.
• He was welcomed by the local ruler, Zamorin • Francois Caron set up the first French factory at Surat
(Samuthiri). (1668).
• In 1505, the Portuguese appointed Francisco de Almeida • Key settlements: Pondicherry (1673), Chandernagore,
as the first Viceroy of India. Mahe, Karaikal, and Yanam.
• Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509-1515) expanded • The Anglo-French wars (Carnatic Wars, 1746–1763) led
Portuguese control and captured Goa in 1510, making it to the French defeat.
their capital. • The Treaty of Paris (1763) restored Pondicherry but
• The Portuguese declined in the 17th century due to limited French influence in India.
Dutch and English dominance
• Goa remained under Portuguese control till 1961, when Carnatic Wars (1746–1763)
India annexed it. The Carnatic Wars were fought between the British and the
French in South India for control over trade and territory.
Dutch (1602 – 1795) These wars were part of the larger struggle for supremacy
• The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602 to in India during the 18th century.
trade in the East.
• They set up their first factory in Masulipatnam (Andhra First Carnatic War (1746–1748)
Pradesh) in 1605. Causes:
• Key trading centers: Pulicat, Surat, Chinsurah, • The Austrian War of Succession (1740–1748) led to a
Nagapattinam. conflict between Britain and France in Europe, which
• The Dutch were defeated by the English in the Battle of extended to India.
Colachel (1741) by Travancore ruler Marthanda Varma. • Joseph François Dupleix (French Governor) and
• By 1795, the Dutch lost their hold in India. Admiral La Bourdonnais attacked the British-held
Madras in 1746.
English (1600 – 1947)
• The British East India Company (EIC) was established Major Events:
in 1600 under a charter from Queen Elizabeth I. • French captured Madras (1746) from the British.
• Captain William Hawkins arrived at Jahangir’s court in • Battle of St. Thome (1746): French forces defeated
1609 to secure trading rights. Anwar-ud-Din, the Nawab of Carnatic, who supported
• Sir Thomas Roe (1615) obtained permission from the British.
Jahangir to establish a factory at Surat.
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Result: Major Events:

• Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748): • Battle of Wandiwash (1760):
◦ Ended the war. ◦ British (Sir Eyre Coote) decisively defeated the
◦ Madras was returned to the British in exchange for French (Count de Lally).
Louisburg (in America). ◦ The French lost Arcot and Wandiwash.
◦ French and British remained rivals in India. • British captured Pondicherry (1761), Mahe, and
Karaikal.
Second Carnatic War (1749–1754)
Causes: Result:
• A succession dispute in Hyderabad (between Nasir Jung • Treaty of Paris (1763):
◦ French retained only Pondicherry, Mahe, Karaikal,
and Muzaffar Jung) and Carnatic (between Anwar-ud-
and Chandernagore, but they couldn't fortify or
Din and Chanda Sahib).
maintain an army.
• The French (Dupleix) supported Muzaffar Jung and
◦ British became the dominant European power in
Chanda Sahib, while the British (Robert Clive) India.
supported Nasir Jung and Muhammad Ali.
Conclusion
Major Events: • The British emerged victorious in the Carnatic Wars.
• French initially won: • French influence declined, and they lost their political
◦ Anwar-ud-Din was killed in the Battle of Ambur ambitions in India.
• The wars paved the way for British control over India.
(1749).
◦ Chanda Sahib became Nawab of Carnatic.
British Conquest of Bengal
◦ Muzaffar Jung became Nizam of Hyderabad (later
The conquest of Bengal was a turning point in Indian
killed).
history, as it marked the beginning of British political
• Robert Clive's Counterattack (1751–1752): control in India. The British East India Company, originally
◦ Battle of Arcot (1751): Robert Clive captured Arcot a trading company, became a ruling power after a series of
and defeated Chanda Sahib. battles in Bengal.
◦ Chanda Sahib was killed, and Muhammad Ali
became Nawab of Background
• Bengal was the richest province of India in the 18th
century.
Carnatic (British-supported).
• The British and the French competed for dominance in
Result:
Bengal.
• British won, and Dupleix was recalled to France (1754).
• The Nawabs of Bengal resisted British interference in
• The French influence weakened in India. internal matters.
• Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan, and Siraj-ud-Daulah
Third Carnatic War (1756–1763) were the major Nawabs before British rule.
Causes:
• Conflict between Britain and France in the Seven Years' Battle of Plassey (23rd June 1757)
Causes:
War (1756–1763) extended to India.
• Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, opposed British
• The British and French again fought for dominance.
expansion.
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• The British fortified Calcutta without permission. Dual System of Government (1765–1772)
• The "Black Hole Tragedy" (1756), where Siraj • Introduced by Robert Clive after the Battle of Buxar.
imprisoned British soldiers in a small cell, escalated • British controlled revenues (Diwani rights), while the
tensions. Nawab handled administration.
• Robert Clive conspired with Mir Jafar, the commander • Led to corruption, exploitation, and economic decline.
of Siraj's army, to betray him. • Abolished by Warren Hastings in 1772.

Events: Consequences of the British Conquest of Bengal

• British (Robert Clive) vs. Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah. 1. British became the dominant power in India.
• Mir Jafar and his troops did not fight, leading to the 2. Company rule started, which later led to the British Raj.
Nawab’s defeat. 3. Bengal's economic resources were drained.
• Siraj-ud-Daulah was captured and killed.
4. Foundation for British expansion in India was laid.
5. Indian rulers became puppets under British control.
Results:
• Mir Jafar became the puppet Nawab of Bengal.
Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767–1799)
• The British gained political influence in Bengal.
Wodeyar Dynasty & Rise of Mysore
• The East India Company got revenue rights and trade
The Wodeyar Dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Mysore from
privileges.
1399. However, during the 18th century, real power was
Battle of Buxar (22nd October 1764) held by Hyder Ali and later his son Tipu Sultan, who
Causes: modernized the army and made Mysore a strong military
• Mir Jafar was replaced by Mir Qasim, who tried to state. The Anglo-Mysore Wars were fought between
challenge British power. Mysore and the British East India Company, ultimately
• Mir Qasim abolished trade duties for Indians, angering leading to British control over the region.
the British.
• The British defeated Mir Qasim, who allied with the First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–1769)
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and Shuja-ud-Daulah Causes:
(Nawab of Awadh). • Mysore, under Hyder Ali, was expanding rapidly,
threatening British dominance in South India.
Events: • The British allied with the Marathas and the Nizam of
• British (led by Hector Munro) vs. Hyderabad to weaken Mysore.
◦ Mir Qasim (Bengal)
◦ Shuja-ud-Daulah (Awadh) Events:
◦ Shah Alam II (Mughal Emperor) • Hyder Ali initially defeated the British using superior
• The British won due to superior military tactics. military tactics.
• However, the British, along with the Marathas and
Results: Nizam, launched a counterattack.
• The British became the real rulers of Bengal. • Hyder Ali diplomatically convinced the Marathas and
• Shah Alam II signed the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), Nizam to switch sides, isolating the British.
granting the British Diwani rights (tax collection) in
Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. Result:
• Awadh became a British ally. • Treaty of Madras (1769): Both sides agreed to return
conquered territories and provide mutual support in case
of an external attack.
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Events:
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–1784) • The British, along with the Marathas and Nizam,
Causes: besieged Srirangapatna.
• The British failed to honor the Treaty of Madras, • Tipu Sultan fought bravely but was killed on 4th May
refusing to help Mysore against the Marathas. 1799 while defending his capital.
• Hyder Ali formed an alliance with the Marathas and the
French against the British. Result:
• The British annexed most of Mysore.
Events: • The Wodeyar dynasty was restored, but under British
• Hyder Ali captured Arcot and advanced towards control.
Madras. • Tipu Sultan’s family was exiled, marking the end of
• However, in 1782, Hyder Ali died, and his son Tipu Mysore’s resistance.
Sultan continued the war.
• Tipu Sultan launched several attacks, defeating the Impact of the Anglo-Mysore Wars
British at Pollilur. • British dominance over South India was established.
• Mysore lost its independence, becoming a princely state
Result: under British control.
• Treaty of Mangalore (1784): Both sides agreed to restore • Tipu Sultan's death ended resistance against the British
conquered territories, maintaining status quo. in the Deccan region.
• The British now focused on defeating the Marathas,
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792) leading to the Anglo-Maratha Wars.
Causes:
• Tipu Sultan attacked Travancore, a British ally. Conclusion
• The British formed an alliance with the Marathas and The Anglo-Mysore Wars were crucial in the expansion of
Nizam of Hyderabad to defeat Mysore. British rule in India. With the fall of Tipu Sultan in 1799,
Mysore came under British influence, and the balance of
Events: power shifted in favor of the East India Company.
• Tipu fought bravely but faced a strong British alliance.
Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818)
• The British forces, led by Lord Cornwallis, captured
The Anglo-Maratha Wars were a series of three wars fought
Bangalore and besieged Srirangapatna.
between the Maratha Empire and the British East India
Result: Company. These wars ultimately led to the downfall of the
• Treaty of Srirangapatna (1792): Marathas and the establishment of British dominance in
◦ Tipu Sultan had to surrender half of his kingdom to India.
the British, Marathas, and Nizam. First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782)
◦ He had to pay a heavy war indemnity and send his Causes:
two sons as hostages to the British. • Internal conflict among the Marathas after the death of
Peshwa Madhavrao I in 1772.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) • Raghunath Rao (Raghoba) wanted to become Peshwa
Causes: but was opposed by the Maratha Confederacy.
• Tipu Sultan sought help from France, Turkey, and • He sought British help and signed the Treaty of Surat
Afghanistan to fight the British. (1775), giving them Salsette and Bassein.
• The British, led by Lord Wellesley, launched an attack
on Mysore.
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Events: Events:
• The British fought against the Maratha Confederacy but • The British decisively defeated the Marathas in battles at
faced strong resistance. Koregaon, Mahidpur, and Ashti.
• The British were defeated in the Battle of Wadgaon
• Baji Rao II surrendered in 1818, marking the end of the
(1779) and forced to retreat.
Maratha Empire.
Result:
• Treaty of Salbai (1782): Result:
◦ British recognized Madhavrao II as Peshwa. • The Peshwaship was abolished, and Baji Rao II was
◦ Raghunath Rao was pensioned off. exiled to Bithoor (Kanpur).
◦ The British retained Salsette but returned other
• Most of Maratha territory was annexed by the British.
territories.
• Only the Princely State of Satara remained under a
Significance: Maratha ruler but as a British protectorate.
• Established peace for 20 years between the British and
Marathas. Impact of the Anglo-Maratha Wars
• British dominance over India was established.
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805)
• The Maratha Confederacy was completely destroyed.
Causes:
• Death of Peshwa Madhavrao II (1796) led to succession • British control over Delhi and Central India was secured.
disputes. • It paved the way for the British to become the paramount
• Baji Rao II, the new Peshwa, was opposed by the power in India.
Holkars.
• After being defeated by Yashwantrao Holkar, Baji Rao Conclusion
II sought British protection and signed the Treaty of
The Anglo-Maratha Wars marked the end of Maratha rule
Bassein (1802), which made the Marathas dependent on
the British. and the rise of British supremacy in India. With the fall of
the Marathas in 1818, the British became the undisputed
Events: rulers of the Indian subcontinent.
• The British, led by Lord Wellesley, defeated the
Marathas in battles at Delhi, Assaye, Laswari, and
Conquest of Punjab (1845–1849)
Argaon.
The Conquest of Punjab refers to the British annexation of
• The Scindias, Bhonsles, and Holkars were forced to sign
treaties with the British. the Sikh Empire after two Anglo-Sikh Wars. The British
East India Company defeated the Sikhs and took control of
Result: Punjab, marking the end of independent Sikh rule.
• Marathas lost Delhi and large territories to the British.
• The British gained control over North and Central India.
Background
• Maratha power weakened significantly.
• The Sikh Empire, founded by Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818) (1799–1839), was a powerful state in North India.
Causes: • After his death, Punjab became politically unstable due
• The British wanted to completely eliminate Maratha to weak rulers and internal conflicts.
power. • The British, seeing an opportunity, sought to bring
• Peshwa Baji Rao II and Maratha chiefs tried to unite
Punjab under their control.
against the British.
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First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846) Impact of the Conquest of Punjab

Causes: • Punjab became a British province (1849).
• Political instability in Punjab after Ranjit Singh’s death. • The Sikh army was disbanded.
• Increasing British influence in the region. • British control extended to the northwest frontier.
• The Sikh army (Khalsa) felt threatened by the British • Sikhs later became key recruits in the British Indian
presence near Punjab. Army.

Events: Administrative Policy of the British

• The Sikhs crossed the Sutlej River, leading to war with The British administrative policies in India were designed
the British. to strengthen their control, exploit resources, and maintain
• Major battles: Mudki, Ferozeshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon. law and order. These policies gradually led to the complete
• The British, led by Sir Hugh Gough, defeated the Sikh colonization of India.
forces.
Policy of Ring Fence
Result: The Policy of Ring Fence was a British diplomatic and
• Treaty of Lahore (1846): military strategy during the late 18th century to safeguard
◦ Punjab lost Jammu and Kashmir to the British. their Indian territories from external threats, particularly
◦ The Sikh army was reduced, and a British Resident from Afghans and Marathas. This policy was mainly
(Henry Lawrence) was placed in Lahore. implemented by Warren Hastings (Governor-General from
• Treaty of Amritsar (1846): 1772–1785).
◦ Jammu and Kashmir were given to Gulab Singh for
₹75 lakh, creating the Dogra dynasty. Features of the Policy of Ring Fence:
1. Defense of British Territories:
Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849) ◦ The British provided financial and military support to
Causes: buffer states (like Awadh) to act as a protective
• Sikhs were unhappy with British interference in Punjab. barrier.
• Revolts broke out in Multan and Hazara against British 2. Protection Against Afghan Invasions:
rule. ◦ The British feared invasions from Afghanistan via the
• The British used these uprisings as an excuse to attack northwest frontier and aimed to secure Punjab and
Punjab. Sindh indirectly.
3. Use of Friendly States:
Events: ◦ Instead of direct control, the British supported weak
• Major battles: Ramnagar, Chillianwala, and Gujarat. Indian rulers (e.g., Nawab of Awadh) to act as a
• The British, led by Lord Dalhousie and Hugh Gough, defensive shield.
crushed Sikh resistance. 4. Avoidance of Direct Confrontation:
◦ Rather than annexing new territories, the British used
Result: alliances and subsidies to maintain indirect control.
• Punjab was fully annexed in 1849. 5. Beginning of British Expansionism:
• Maharaja Duleep Singh, the last Sikh ruler, was ◦ Though initially defensive, this policy led to further
dethroned and sent to England. British intervention in Indian states and eventual
• The Kohinoor diamond was taken by the British. annexations.
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Subsidiary Alliance Key Features of the Doctrine of Lapse

The Subsidiary Alliance was a policy introduced by Lord 1. Succession without a Male Heir:
Wellesley (Governor-General from 1798 to 1805) to ◦ If a ruler of a princely state died without a natural
establish British dominance over Indian princely states. male heir, the British would claim the state as part of
Under this system, Indian rulers had to accept British the British Empire.
military protection in exchange for surrendering control
2. Adoption of Heirs:
over their foreign affairs.
◦ If a ruler without a male heir adopted a successor, the
British would not recognize the adopted heir unless
Key Features of the Subsidiary Alliance
they gave their formal approval. This was a major
1. Stationing of British Troops – The Indian ruler had to
maintain a British army in his territory, paid for from his restriction imposed on the native rulers.
state’s revenue. 3. Annexation of States:
2. No Foreign Alliances – The state could not form ◦ If a ruler died without a male heir and had not
alliances with any other power or declare war without received British approval for adoption, the British
British permission. would annex the territory under the Doctrine of
3. British Resident in the Court – A British official Lapse.
(Resident) was stationed in the state to monitor its
administration. States Annexed under the Doctrine of Lapse
4. No Employment of Foreigners – The ruler could not 1. Satara (1848):
employ Europeans in his service without British
◦ The state of Satara was annexed after the death of
approval.
Chandrasen, the last Maratha ruler, as he did not have
5. British Control Over Governance – In case of failure to
a male heir.
pay for the British troops, part of the ruler’s territory was
2. Jaipur (1849):
taken as compensation.
◦ The ruler of Jaipur died without a male heir, and the
Implementation of Subsidiary Alliance British annexed the state under the Doctrine.
• First State to Accept: Nizam of Hyderabad (1798) 3. Nagpur (1854):
• Major States that Signed the Alliance: ◦ Raghoji III, the Maratha ruler of Nagpur, died
◦ Mysore (1799) – After Tipu Sultan’s defeat in the without a male heir. The British annexed the
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War kingdom.
◦ Awadh (1801) – Part of its territory was annexed by 4. Jhansi (1854):
the British ◦ The kingdom of Jhansi, under Rani Lakshmibai, was
◦ Peshwa of Marathas (1802) – After signing the annexed after the death of the king, Raja Gangadhar
Treaty of Bassein Rao, who did not have a male heir.
◦ Gwalior (1804) – Scindia accepted the alliance after
defeat
Important Uprising Before 1857
◦ Indore, Jaipur, Jodhpur, and other Rajput states
(1817–1818) Tribal Uprisings
(a) Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856)
Doctrine of Lapse • Location: Bihar, Bengal, Orissa
The Doctrine of Lapse was a policy introduced by Lord • Cause: Discontent over land alienation, revenue
Dalhousie, the British Governor-General of India (1848– policies, and exploitation by moneylenders.
1856). It was used to annex Indian states that did not have a • Leaders:
direct male heir to the throne. This policy led to the ◦ Sidhu
annexation of several princely states into British India. ◦ Kanhu
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• Outcome: The rebellion was suppressed by the • Cause: Sanyasis opposed British revenue policies,
British, but it highlighted the growing discontent taxation, and economic hardship.
among tribal communities. • Leaders:
(b) Munda Rebellion (1855-1856) ◦ Bhavani Pathak (Sanyasi leader).
• Location: Chotanagpur (Jharkhand) • Outcome: The uprising was crushed but contributed
• Cause: Resentment over British land revenue to the growing resistance
system, exploitation by zamindars, and cultural
suppression. Revolt of 1857
• Leaders: The Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian
◦ Birsa Munda (Leader of the Munda community, Independence, was a major uprising against British rule. It
fought for tribal rights and independence). had several causes, events, and leaders that marked the
• Outcome: The rebellion was crushed, but it remained beginning of a larger national movement.
a symbol of tribal resistance.
(c) Bhil Uprising (1817-1818) 1. Causes of the Revolt
• Location: Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat (a) Political Causes
• Cause: The Bhil tribes rose against the British Annexation of Indian States: British policies like
annexation of their lands and land tax policies. Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliance led to the
• Leaders: annexation of many kingdoms, such as the Marathas,
◦ Chandrasen (Bhil leader). Awadh, and Jhansi.
• Outcome: The rebellion was suppressed, but it led to Loss of Sovereignty: The Indian rulers lost their
changes in British land policies. autonomy, leading to resentment.
(d) Koli Rebellion (1829-1830) (b) Economic Causes
• Location: Maharashtra High Taxation: The peasantry faced heavy land taxes
• Cause: The Kolis opposed British annexation of their and exploitation by British landlords.
territories and oppression by revenue officials. Exploitation: British policies like the Permanent
• Leaders: Settlement affected the local economy and harmed
◦ Ranoji (Koli leader). farmers.
• Outcome: The uprising was crushed, but it revealed (c) Social and Religious Causes
widespread tribal resentment. Interference with Indian Traditions: British laws such as
the Widow Remarriage Act and the Abolition of Sati
Civil Uprisings angered many Indians.
(a) Vellore Mutiny (1806) Christian Missionaries: The spread of Christianity led to
• Location: Vellore, Tamil Nadu fears of forced conversions.
• Cause: Discontent over dress codes and religious (d) Military Causes
reforms imposed by the British on Indian soldiers. Racial Discrimination: Indian soldiers (sepoys) faced
• Leaders: discrimination and poor treatment in the British army.
◦ Sardar Fateh Singh Greased Cartridge Controversy: The introduction of
◦ Maharaja of Vellore Enfield rifles, where cartridges were rumored to be
• Outcome: The mutiny was suppressed, but it greased with cow and pig fat, caused outrage among
highlighted growing discontent in the army. sepoys, who were Hindu and Muslim.
(b) The Sanyasi Rebellion (1770-1800)
• Location: Bengal
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(e) Immediate Cause Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai, a prominent symbol of

The mutiny began due to the introduction of greased resistance, fought bravely to protect her kingdom.
cartridges, which offended both Hindus and Muslims, Key Leaders of the Revolt
leading to open rebellion. Bahadur Shah Zafar: The Mughal emperor, who was
declared the leader of the revolt.
2. Mangal Pandey and the Beginning of the Revolt Mangal Pandey: The sepoy who became a symbol of the
Mangal Pandey was an Indian sepoy in the British East uprising after he refused to use the greased cartridges.
India Company's army, stationed in Barrackpore, near Nana Saheb: The adopted son of the Peshwa Baji Rao II,
Calcutta. led the revolt in Kanpur.
On 29th March 1857, Mangal Pandey refused to use the Rani Lakshmibai: The queen of Jhansi, who fought
newly introduced Enfield rifle cartridges that were rumored courageously against British forces.
to be greased with cow and pig fat. Begum Hazrat Mahal: Led the resistance in Lucknow.
After a confrontation with British officers, Mangal Pandey Tatya Tope: A key figure in the rebellion, who fought
attacked and wounded an officer, Major Hewson. alongside Nana Saheb.
The British immediately tried to arrest him, but Pandey
fought back, and in the end, he was arrested, tried, and British Response and Suppression
sentenced to death. Brutal Suppression: The British responded with harsh
Mangal Pandey was hanged on 8th April 1857, and his measures, executing leaders and suppressing the movement
actions inspired a wider mutiny among Indian sepoys. through military force.
His defiance became a symbol of resistance and was one of Recapture of Delhi: The British recaptured Delhi in
the first sparks of the revolt, though he did not live to see September 1857, and Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to
the broader uprising. Rangoon.
Final Suppression: By 1858, the British had regained
Important Events of the Revolt control of most of India.
Beginning of the Revolt
The revolt officially began on 10th May 1857 in Meerut, Consequences of the Revolt
where sepoys rebelled and marched to Delhi, declaring (a) End of the Mughal Empire
Bahadur Shah Zafar as the leader of the uprising. The Mughal Empire officially ended, as Bahadur Shah
Zafar was deposed, marking the end of the Mughal
Siege of Delhi dynasty in India.
Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, was declared (b) British Direct Rule
the symbolic leader of the revolt. The rebels captured Delhi, The British ended the rule of the East India Company
and the British recaptured the city in September 1857 after and established direct rule over India, known as the
a prolonged siege. British Raj.
(c) Socio-Political Changes
Major Centers of Revolt The British became more cautious in dealing with Indian
Kanpur: Led by Nana Saheb, the British were rulers, leading to more repressive policies and greater
overpowered, but later massacres and British retaliation led control over Indian society.
to the defeat of the rebels. (d) Rise of Nationalism
Lucknow: The Begum Hazrat Mahal led a valiant The revolt was a precursor to the Indian freedom
resistance. Lucknow remained under siege until March struggle. Though unsuccessful, it laid the foundation for
1858. future movements for Indian independence.
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Conclusion • Book: Satyarth Prakash

The Revolt of 1857 was a landmark event in India's history. • Principles:
While it was ultimately crushed, it marked the first ◦ Advocated return to Vedas and rejected idolatry.
widespread challenge to British rule and served as a ◦ Introduced Shuddhi Movement (reconversion to
significant step toward the nationalistic movement. The role Hinduism).
of Mangal Pandey is particularly important as it was his act ◦ Opposed child marriage and untouchability.
of rebellion that sparked the beginning of this monumental ◦ Established Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV)
uprising. Schools for modern education.
◦ Gave the slogan “Go back to the Vedas”.
Socio-Religious Reform Movements in India
(19th & 20th Century) 4. Ramakrishna Mission (1897)
Introduction • Founder: Swami Vivekananda (disciple of
• The 19th and early 20th centuries saw major socio- Ramakrishna Paramhansa)
religious reform movements in India. • Principles:
• These movements aimed at eradicating social evils like ◦ Spread Vedanta philosophy and spiritual
caste discrimination, untouchability, child marriage, and nationalism.
sati while promoting education, women’s rights, and ◦ Focused on service to humanity, education, and
rational thinking. healthcare.
• Inspired by Western education, modern science, and ◦ Established schools, hospitals, and relief work
national awakening, these movements played a crucial organizations.
role in India’s social and political revival. ◦ Gave the famous speech at Chicago (1893):
“Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is
1. Brahmo Samaj (1828) reached.”
• Founder: Raja Ram Mohan Roy
• Principles: 5. Theosophical Society (1875, in India – 1882)
◦ Opposed idol worship, polytheism, and • Founders: Madame Blavatsky & Colonel Olcott
superstitions. • Key Figure: Annie Besant
◦ Promoted monotheism (belief in one God). • Principles:
◦ Worked for women’s education, abolition of Sati ◦ Promoted Hindu spiritual revival.
(1829), and widow remarriage. ◦ Supported Indian self-rule & social reforms.
◦ Influenced modern Indian nationalism. ◦ Spread Vedantic & Buddhist teachings.

2. Prarthana Samaj (1867) 6. Aligarh Movement (1875)

• Founder: Atmaram Pandurang (inspired by Brahmo • Founder: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
Samaj) • Principles:
• Key Figures: M.G. Ranade, R.G. Bhandarkar ◦ Promoted modern education among Muslims.
• Principles: ◦ Established Aligarh Muslim University (AMU).
◦ Opposed caste discrimination and idol worship. ◦ Encouraged scientific thinking and rationalism.
◦ Supported widow remarriage, women’s ◦ Advocated Hindu-Muslim unity but later
education, and social equality. supported the Two-Nation Theory.

3. Arya Samaj (1875) 7. Wahabi Movement (1820s)

• Founder: Swami Dayanand Saraswati • Founder: Syed Ahmed Barelvi
 11

• Principles: also influenced the freedom struggle by making Indians

◦ Inspired by Islamic fundamentalism and reform. aware of their rights and responsibilities.
◦ Opposed British rule & Western influence.
◦ Led a militant movement against British & Sikh Modern Nationalism: Beginning & Political
rule in Punjab. Associations Before Indian National Congress
Introduction
8. Young Bengal Movement (1820s-30s) • Indian modern nationalism began in the mid-19th
• Founder: Henry Louis Vivian Derozio century, influenced by British rule, Western education,
• Principles: socio-religious reforms, and economic exploitation.
◦ Encouraged rationalism, scientific thinking, and • Early nationalists criticized British policies and
questioning traditions. demanded reforms rather than independence.
◦ Inspired Indian youth for nationalism & social • Various political associations were formed before the
reforms. Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 to express
nationalist sentiments.
9. Satya Shodhak Samaj (1873)
• Founder: Jyotirao Phule Factors Leading to Modern Nationalism in India
• Principles: 1. Economic Exploitation by the British
◦ Worked for the rights of lower castes (Shudras, • Drain of Wealth Theory: Dadabhai Naoroji
Dalits). highlighted how Britain drained India’s wealth.
◦ Opposed Brahmanical supremacy. • Destruction of Indian industries led to poverty and
◦ Advocated education for women and Dalits. unemployment.

10. Self-Respect Movement (1925) 2. Impact of Western Education

• Founder: E.V. Ramasamy Naicker (Periyar) • Spread of English education & modern ideas led to
• Principles: awareness about democracy, liberty, and nationalism.
◦ Opposed caste system & Brahmin dominance. • Inspired by French & American Revolutions.
◦ Supported women’s rights, inter-caste marriages,
and rationalism. 3. Role of Socio-Religious Reform Movements
◦ Led to the rise of Dravidian politics in Tamil • Movements like Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and
Nadu. Aligarh Movement awakened Indians.
• They challenged casteism, untouchability, and
Impact of Socio-Religious Reform Movements religious superstitions.
Abolition of social evils like Sati, child marriage,
untouchability. 4. Administrative & Political Unity
Promotion of women’s rights – education, widow • British rule united India under a single
remarriage. administration.
Rise of nationalism and self-confidence among Indians. • Common laws, railways, and postal services helped
Spread of modern education & scientific thinking. in communication and nationalism.
Challenged orthodox beliefs and promoted rationalism.
5. Growth of Press & Literature
Conclusion • Newspapers like The Hindu, Amrita Bazar Patrika,
These movements transformed Indian society and paved the Kesari spread nationalist ideas.
way for social justice, equality, and national unity. They
 12

• Books like ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’ by • Demanded administrative reforms and justice for
Dadabhai Naoroji exposed British exploitation. Indians.

6. Impact of Revolt of 1857 6. Indian League (1875)

• Though it failed, it ignited nationalist feelings against • Founded in Calcutta by Sisir Kumar Ghosh.
British rule. • Created political awareness among common people.
• British repression after 1857 led to unity among
Indians. 7. Indian Association (1876)
• Founded by Surendranath Banerjee in Calcutta.
Early Political Associations (Before 1885) • First political body with mass participation.
Before the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) • Demanded:
in 1885, several regional and national political groups ◦ Indianization of civil services.
emerged. ◦ Higher representation for Indians in government.
◦ Spread of modern education.
1. Landholders’ Society (1838)
• Founded in Bengal by Dwarkanath Tagore & 8. Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1870)
Radhakanta Deb. • Founded by M.G. Ranade in Maharashtra.
• First political association of modern India. • Worked for political and economic reforms.
• Represented landlords & zamindars but did not focus
on mass movements. 9. Bombay Presidency Association (1885)
• Founded by Pherozeshah Mehta, K.T. Telang, and
2. Bengal British India Society (1843) Badruddin Tyabji.
• Established in Calcutta, demanded reforms in British • Opposed British economic policies and supported
policies. nationalist movements.
• Focused on the economic and political rights of
Indians. Role of These Associations in Nationalism
Created political awareness among Indians.
3. British Indian Association (1851) Demanded reforms from the British government.
• Merged Landholders’ Society & Bengal British India Exposed British exploitation through petitions and
Society. newspapers.
• Demanded: United different regions of India in the nationalist cause.
◦ Indian representation in government. Laid the foundation for Indian National Congress (1885).
◦ Legal & economic reforms.
◦ Development of education Conclusion
The formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in
4. Bombay Association (1852) 1885 was a result of these early political movements. These
• Founded by Dadabhai Naoroji in Bombay. associations played a crucial role in shaping modern Indian
• Protested against heavy taxation and misrule. nationalism and preparing the groundwork for India’s
• Later merged into other nationalist organizations. freedom struggle.

5. Madras Native Association (1852)

• Formed in Madras (Chennai) to represent Indian
interests.
 13

Formation of Indian National Congress (INC) • He believed that a political organization would help
Introduction Indians express their grievances peacefully.
• The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded in
1885 to provide a platform for political discussions and Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)
reforms. • Date of Formation: 28 December 1885
• It played a crucial role in India’s freedom struggle and • Place: Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay
later became the leading organization for Indian • Founder: A.O. Hume
independence. • First President: W.C. Bonnerjee (1885, Bombay
Session)
Factors Leading to the Formation of INC • Total Delegates: 72 delegates from all over India
1. Role of Early Political Associations • Objective: Create a platform for political discussions
• Indian Association (1876), Poona Sarvajanik Sabha & reforms
(1870), Bombay Presidency Association (1885)
created political awareness. Objectives of INC
• These organizations demanded reforms in Promote political unity among Indians.
governance and rights for Indians. Demand constitutional reforms from the British.
Create a sense of nationalism.
2. Growing Nationalism Encourage Indian participation in governance.
• Socio-religious reform movements and economic Protect civil rights like free speech & press.
exploitation by the British created a national identity.
First Session of INC (1885)
3. British Administrative Unity • Location: Bombay (Mumbai)
• British laws, railways, and communication systems • President: W.C. Bonnerjee
helped unite Indians politically. • Key Demands:
◦ More participation of Indians in administration.
4. Impact of Western Education ◦ Reduction of military expenditure.
• Educated Indians were influenced by Western liberal ◦ Development of education.
ideas like democracy, liberty, and nationalism. ◦ Protection of Indian industry.
• Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath
Banerjee, and Pherozeshah Mehta wanted to 2nd Session of INC (1886)
politically organize Indians. • Location: Calcutta
• President: Dadabhai Naoroji
5. Economic Exploitation by the British • Key Highlights:
• The Drain of Wealth Theory (by Dadabhai Naoroji) ◦ Participation increased significantly
highlighted how British policies were impoverishing ◦ Emphasized Indian representation in government.
India. ◦ Strengthened INC’s national character.
• Increased taxes, famines, and poverty fueled political
awakening. 3rd Session of INC (1887)
• Location: Madras
6. Role of A.O. Hume (a British Civil Servant) • President: Badruddin Tyabji (First Muslim President
• Allan Octavian Hume (A.O. Hume) was a retired of INC)
British officer who helped form the INC. • Key Highlights:
◦ Stressed Hindu-Muslim unity.
 14

◦ Opposed the British attempt to divide Indians on ◦ Famines, high taxation, and unemployment worsened
communal lines. the situation.
◦ Continued demands for constitutional reforms and
civil rights. 4 Influence of International Movements
◦ The success of Japan (Russo-Japanese War 1904-05)
British Reaction to INC Formation inspired Indians.
• Initially, the British supported the INC as a safety ◦ Russian Revolution (1905) motivated nationalists.
valve (to prevent violent revolts).
• However, as INC became more assertive, British 5 Growing Awareness & Role of Leaders
officials like Lord Dufferin started opposing it. ◦ Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat
Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal) encouraged Swadeshi & aggressive
Impact of INC Formation nationalism.
Provided a united political platform for Indians. ◦ They promoted boycotts, self-reliance, and protests
Strengthened national consciousness. against British rule.
Created political awareness among the masses.
Laid the foundation for India’s struggle for independence. Partition of Bengal (1905)
The formation of the INC in 1885 was a landmark event in Background
Indian history. Initially, it sought gradual reforms, but later • Announced by Lord Curzon on 19 July 1905,
it became the leader of India’s freedom movement. implemented on 16 October 1905.
• Bengal was divided into two parts:
Era of Militant Nationalism & Partition of 1 West Bengal (Hindus)
Bengal (1905) 2 East Bengal & Assam (Muslims)
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1919)
Introduction British Justification
• The period from 1905 to 1919 marked the rise of militant Claimed administrative convenience.
nationalism in India. Said Bengal was too large to govern effectively.
• The failure of the Moderates (1885-1905) to achieve Real British Motive
significant reforms led to a new, aggressive phase in the Divide and Rule Policy to weaken nationalism.
Indian freedom struggle. Encourage Hindu-Muslim division.
• Militant nationalists believed in direct action, self-
reliance, and resistance against British rule. Swadeshi & Boycott Movement (1905-1908)
• Started as a response to Bengal’s partition.
Reasons for the Rise of Militant Nationalism • Objectives:
1 Failure of the Moderate Phase (1885-1905) ◦ Boycott British goods.
◦ British government ignored petitions and resolutions ◦ Promote Swadeshi (indigenous) industries.
of the INC. ◦ Strengthen national education & self-reliance.
◦ No major political reforms were introduced.
2 Partition of Bengal (1905) Methods Used
◦ British divided Bengal to weaken national unity. Boycott of British goods (clothes, salt, sugar).
◦ This angered Indians and led to widespread protests. Public protests, mass rallies, bonfires of foreign goods.
3 Economic Exploitation Promotion of Swadeshi industries (handlooms, khadi).
◦ Drain of Wealth theory exposed British economic Nationalist education (Bengal National College).
exploitation.
 15

Leaders of the Movement 4 In 1916, the reunion of Moderates and Extremists helped
• Moderates: Supported protests but avoided violence. the freedom struggle gain momentum.
• Extremists (Lal-Bal-Pal):
◦ Tilak: "Swaraj is my birthright." Home Rule League Movement (1916-1918)
◦ Bipin Chandra Pal: Mass mobilization. • Inspired by Ireland’s Home Rule Movement.
◦ Lala Lajpat Rai: Strong public speeches. • Aimed at self-government within the British Empire.
• Launched by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant in
Impact of the Movement 1916.
Created strong national awakening.
Strengthened economic nationalism. Tilak’s Home Rule League (April 1916)
British government was forced to reunite Bengal in 1911. • Started in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Berar, and Central
Movement lost momentum after 1908 due to British Provinces.
repression. • Used newspapers like Kesari and Maratha for mass
awakening.
Surat Split (1907) • Slogan: "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!"
1 The Surat Session of INC (1907) saw a major split
between Moderates and Extremists due to ideological Annie Besant’s Home Rule League (September 1916)
differences. • Covered rest of India, especially Madras, Bombay, and
2 Moderates, led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, believed in Calcutta.
constitutional methods and gradual reforms. • Used newspapers like New India and Commonweal to
3 Extremists, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, demanded spread ideas.
Swaraj (self-rule) and direct action against the British. • She played a key role in mobilizing educated Indians.
4 The split happened when Moderates opposed Tilak’s
election as Congress President, leading to heated Objectives of Home Rule Movement
arguments and physical fights. 1 Demand self-government (Swaraj) within British rule.
5 As a result, Congress split into two groups: 2 Create political awareness among Indians.
◦ Moderates remained in INC, while Extremists were 3 Pressure British government for constitutional reforms.
expelled. 4 Mobilize masses and students for nationalism.
6 The split weakened the national movement, and the
British took advantage by arresting Tilak in 1908. British Response
7 However, in 1916 (Lucknow Pact), the Moderates and • Repressed the movement and arrested Tilak and
Extremists reunited, strengthening the struggle for Besant.
independence. • Montagu Declaration (1917) promised gradual self-
rule, weakening the movement.
Conclusion • Movement declined in 1918 as Congress focused on
1 The Partition of Bengal (1905) and the Surat Split (1907) Gandhian mass movements.
were key turning points in the Indian freedom
movement. Impact of the Home Rule League
2 The Swadeshi Movement mobilized Indians and created • Created strong political awareness among Indians.
economic nationalism. • Led to Congress accepting self-government as its goal.
3 The Surat Split weakened INC, but nationalism • Prepared the ground for Gandhi’s mass movements
continued to grow. (Non-Cooperation, 1920).
 16

• Revolutionary activities showed Indian determination 2 Revolutionaries intensified their activities – Ghadar
for freedom, but they lacked mass support. Movement, Berlin Committee, and Hindu-German
• The Home Rule League played a crucial role in Conspiracy aimed at overthrowing British rule.
politicizing Indians and preparing for future movements.
• Both movements contributed to the larger national Ghadar Movement (1915)
struggle for independence. 1 Launched by Indian revolutionaries in USA and Canada
(led by Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna, and Kartar
First World War (1914-1918) and Singh Sarabha).
Nationalist Response 2 Attempted an armed uprising in Punjab but was crushed
First World War (1914-1918) by the British.
1 The First World War began in 1914 between the Allied 3 Many revolutionaries were arrested and executed (e.g.,
Powers (Britain, France, Russia, USA) and the Central Kartar Singh Sarabha).
Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire).
2 India, as a British colony, was forced to support Britain Home Rule League Movement (1916-1918)
in the war. 1 Tilak and Annie Besant launched Home Rule Leagues to
3 Around 13 lakh Indian soldiers were sent to fight, and demand self-government during the war.
over 74,000 lost their lives. 2 Movement mobilized public opinion and increased
nationalist sentiments.
Impact of World War I on India 3 British response – Annie Besant was arrested in 1917,
1 Heavy Economic Burden – Increased taxes, inflation, but later released due to pressure.
and food shortages.
2 Rise in Unemployment – Industries suffered due to the Montagu Declaration (1917) – A False Promise
diversion of resources for war. 1 In response to rising nationalist demands, Edwin
3 Repression of Nationalists – British suppressed political Montagu (Secretary of State for India) announced that
activities and arrested leaders. the British government would gradually introduce self-
4 Increased Racial Discrimination – British officers government in India.
treated Indian soldiers and workers unfairly. 2 However, the promise was vague and had no clear
5 Expectation of Reforms – Indians supported Britain, timeline, leading to disappointment among Indians.
hoping for political concessions after the war.
Post-War Nationalist Developments
Nationalist Response to World War I 1 Rowlatt Act (1919) – Introduced to crush nationalist
Moderates’ Response activities, allowing arrest without trial.
1 Led by Congress leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale 2 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) – British troops under
and Surendranath Banerjee, they supported the war. General Dyer killed hundreds of peaceful protestersin
2 Hoped that British would reward India with self-rule Amritsar.
after the war. 3 Gandhi’s Leadership – Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a
mass leader with the Non-Cooperation Movement
Extremists’ & Revolutionaries’ Response (1920).
1 Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala 4 Rise of Mass Nationalism – The war period politicized
Lajpat Rai demanded Home Rule instead of blindly Indian masses, increasing participation in the freedom
supporting Britain. struggle.
 17

• World War I intensified nationalist movements in Post Non-Cooperation Movement (1922-1923)

India due to economic hardships and British After the Chauri Chaura Incident (1922), Gandhi called off
repression. the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• The Home Rule Movement and Ghadar Movement Many leaders were disappointed and divided on future
strengthened nationalist sentiments. strategies.
• British failed to fulfill their promises, leading to Two factions emerged within Congress:
widespread protests and the rise of Gandhi’s mass Pro-Changers (Gandhians): Favored constructive work like
movements. Khadi promotion and Harijan upliftment.
No-Changers (Swarajists): Wanted to fight British
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) policies from within the legislative councils.
Launched by Mahatma Gandhi in response to the
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) and the Khilafat Formation of Swaraj Party (1923)
Movement. Leaders: C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru.
Approved by the Congress at the Nagpur Session (1920). Aim: Enter the legislative councils and oppose British
Aim: To attain Swaraj (self-rule) through non-violent policies from within.
means. Successes:
Key Features: Won many seats in the 1923 elections.
Boycott of: Demanded self-rule and opposed repressive British laws.
Government schools, colleges, and offices. Failures:
Foreign goods, British courts, and elections. Limited legislative power.
Titles and honors given by the British. C.R. Das died in 1925, weakening the party.
Promotion of: By 1926, the Swaraj Party declined, and many members
Swadeshi goods and Khadi. rejoined the Congress.
Establishment of national educational institutions.
Spread of the Movement: Simon Commission (1927)
Mass participation of peasants, students, and women. British appointed Simon Commission in 1927 to review the
Leaders like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, and Ali Brothers Government of India Act 1919.
actively participated. No Indian members → Seen as an insult to Indians.
Strikes, hartals, and demonstrations were organized across Protests:
India. Nationwide demonstrations with the slogan "Simon Go
End of the Movement: Back!".
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922): Violence erupted when In Lahore (1928), Lala Lajpat Rai led a protest and was
protesters set a police station on fire, killing 22 policemen. injured in a police lathi charge.
Gandhi called off the movement to maintain the principle of He died later due to his injuries.
non-violence. Bhagat Singh & others later avenged his death by killing
Impact: Saunders (British police officer).
First mass movement led by Gandhi. Nehru Report (1928)
Strengthened the Congress as a national movement. Drafted by Motilal Nehru (first Indian constitutional
Weakened British legitimacy in India. proposal).
Inspired future movements like Civil Disobedience (1930) Key Proposals:
and Quit India (1942). Dominion Status for India.
Fundamental Rights (freedom of speech, religion, etc.).
Universal suffrage (voting rights for all).
 18

Reactions: British Monopoly on Salt:

British rejected it. The British imposed heavy taxes on salt, a basic necessity.
Extremists like Jawaharlal Nehru & Subhas Bose wanted Indians were not allowed to make their own salt, increasing
Complete Independence (Purna Swaraj)instead of public resentment.
Dominion Status.
Lahore Session (1929) & Purna Swaraj Declaration Launch of Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
Held in December 1929, presided by Jawaharlal Nehru. Dandi March & Salt Satyagraha (March 12 – April 6,
Congress declared Complete Independence (Purna Swaraj) 1930):
as its goal. Mahatma Gandhi led the march from Sabarmati Ashram
(Ahmedabad) to Dandi (Gujarat), covering 240 miles in 24
26th January 1930: First Independence Day observed across
days.
India.
Thousands of people joined, making it a mass movement.
On April 6, 1930, Gandhi broke the British salt law by
Civil Disobedience Movement
making salt from seawater.
Background & Causes of Civil Disobedience Movement
The act symbolized defiance of British rule and encouraged
Political Causes:
people to participate in civil disobedience.
Failure of Simon Commission (1927):
A British-appointed commission to review the Government
Spread of Civil Disobedience Across India:
of India Act 1919.
Boycott of British goods, foreign cloth, and liquor shops.
No Indian members, leading to widespread protests with the
Refusal to pay land revenue and taxes.
slogan "Simon Go Back!".
Picketing of government offices and courts.
Lala Lajpat Rai was injured in police lathi charge and later
Mass participation of women: Led by Sarojini Naidu,
died.
Kasturba Gandhi, and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay.
Salt Satyagraha in Tamil Nadu: Led by C. Rajagopalachari.
Rejection of Nehru Report (1928):
Salt Satyagraha in Dharasana (Gujarat): Led by Sarojini
The report, prepared by Motilal Nehru, demanded
Naidu, where British police violently attacked protestors.
Dominion Status and fundamental rights.
The British rejected it, causing dissatisfaction among Indian
British Response:
leaders.
Severe police brutality and repression.
Ordinances were passed to curb protests and gatherings.
Lahore Session of Congress (December 1929):
Round Table Conferences (1930-1932)
Jawaharlal Nehru presided over the session.
The British government organized three Round Table
Congress declared "Purna Swaraj" (Complete
Conferences in London to discuss constitutional reforms in
Independence) as its goal.
India.
26 January 1930 was observed as Independence Day,
preparing for mass movement.
First Round Table Conference (November 1930 –
January 1931):
Economic Causes:
Attended by Muslim League, Princes, and British officials.
Great Depression (1929):
Congress boycotted it, as most of its leaders were in jail.
Global economic downturn led to falling agricultural prices
Failed due to lack of national representation.
and rural distress.
High taxation and land revenue collection continued despite
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931):
the crisis, making conditions worse for farmers.
Agreement between Mahatma Gandhi & Lord Irwin
(Viceroy of India).
 19

Key Terms: Impact of the Civil Disobedience Movement

Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Widespread participation: Women, students, peasants,
Movement. and traders joined the movement.
British agreed to release political prisoners, except those Weakened British rule: Exposed British oppression and
involved in violence. injustice.
Indians were allowed to make salt along the coast. Forced British to negotiate: Led to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact
Congress agreed to participate in the Second Round Table and Round Table Conferences.
Conference. Strengthened Indian Nationalism: Inspired the Quit India
Movement (1942).
Second Round Table Conference (September – Led to the Government of India Act 1935, which introduced
December 1931): provincial autonomy.
Gandhi attended as the sole representative of Congress.
Demands: Government of India Act 1935
End of British rule in India. Key Features of the Government of India Act 1935
Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence). 1. Establishment of All-India Federation (Never
Abolition of untouchability and more rights for Dalits. Implemented)
Outcome: Planned a federation with British Indian provinces and
British refused to accept Indian demands. princely states.
Gandhi returned disappointed and resumed the Civil Princely states refused to join, so it was never fully
Disobedience Movement. implemented.
2. Provincial Autonomy
Restart of Civil Disobedience (1932-1934): Provincial Governments were given autonomy.
Gandhi was re-arrested, and mass protests resumed. Governor ruled on British advice but had emergency
British introduced Communal Award (1932) to create powers.
separate electorates for minorities (Muslims, Sikhs, Dalits, Elections were held in 1937, leading to Congress Rule
etc.). in Provinces.
Gandhi opposed the division and fasted against it → Led to 3. Bicameralism in Provinces
Poona Pact (1932) between Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar. Introduced in 6 provinces (Bengal, Bombay, Madras,
Severe repression by the British led to the decline of the Bihar, Assam, and the United Provinces).
movement. Created Upper and Lower Houses in some provinces.
4. Separation of Burma & Aden from India
Third Round Table Conference (November 1932): Burma (Myanmar) was separated from India.
Congress boycotted it again. Aden (now in Yemen) became a separate British
Attended by Muslim League, Princes, and British officials. colony.
Led to Government of India Act 1935, which introduced 5. Expansion of Franchise
provincial autonomy but not full independence. Number of voters increased from 7 million to 35
End of the Civil Disobedience Movement (1934) million.
Voting rights were still limited to property owners,
Gandhi officially called off the movement in 1934 due to: taxpayers, and educated people.
Severe British suppression. 6. Reserved Subjects & Special Powers of Governors
Lack of active participation from some sections. British Governors retained special powers over law and
Shift in Congress strategy towards constitutional reforms. order.
They could dismiss ministers and override decisions.
 20

7. Abolition of Dyarchy in Provinces & Introduction in Abolition of feudal levies and forced labour
Centre Cooperative farming
In provinces, ministers got full control over subjects Wiping out arrears of rent and modification of ejectment
like education, health, and agriculture. laws
At the Centre, Dyarchy was introduced with British Recognition of peasant unions, etc.
control over defense and foreign affairs.
8. Communal Representation Extended Formation of Congress Ministries (July 1937)
Separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Congress formed ministries in Bombay, Madras, Bihar,
and Europeans continued. United Provinces, Orissa, Central Provinces, and the North-
Also granted to women and depressed classes.
West Frontier Province (NWFP).
Limitations of the Government of India Act 1935
In Assam, Congress supported an independent ministry.
No real power for Indian ministers (Governors had
In Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh, non-Congress coalitions
overriding authority). Princely states did not join the
ruled.
federation. British control over defense & foreign
affairs continued. Separate electorates further divided
Achievements of Congress Rule (1937-1939)
communities.
Abolition of Forced Labour (Begar) in many provinces.
Improved conditions for workers and farmers.
Congress and the 1937 Election
Promoted education and introduced basic welfare programs.
The elections of 1937 were the first major elections held
Reduced police repression and improved civil liberties.
under the Government of India Act of 1935. The 1935 Act
Released political prisoners arrested during the Civil
expanded the electorate, allowing a larger number of people
Disobedience Movement.
to vote and participate in the democratic process.

1937 Election Result Conflict with the British Government

The 1937 Election was held in 11 provinces – Madras, British Governors still had overriding powers.
Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, United Provinces, The Muslim League was unhappy with Congress rule,
Bombay Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab, and alleging discrimination.
Sindh. Viceroy Linlithgow kept interfering in provincial matters.

Congress's performance: Resignation of Congress Ministries (1939)

It won 716 out of the 1161 contested seats. On September 3, 1939, Viceroy Linlithgow declared India’s
Majority in the six provinces involvement in World War II without consulting Indians.
Became the largest party in Bengal, NWFP, Assam, and Congress demanded a clear statement of British war aims
Bombay (but not majority) and Indian independence.
Performed poorly in Punjab and Sindh British refused, leading Congress to resign from all
provincial governments on October 22, 1939.
Faizpur Session of Congress, 1937
It was thefirst session to be held in a village and was headed Significance of Congress Resignation
by Jawaharlal Nehru again. It officially demanded the Muslim League celebrated it as "Deliverance Day"
formation of a Constituent Assembly. The session is (December 22, 1939), worsening Hindu-Muslim relations.
significant for laying out agrarian programmes such as: Strengthened the demand for Pakistan (Lahore Resolution
50% reduction in rent and revenue and exemption of 1940).
uneconomic holds from rent and land tax Paved the way for the Quit India Movement (1942).
Taxation on agricultural income
 21

August Offer (1940) Leaders, including members of the Indian National

Introduced during World War II to secure Indian Congress, rejected it for not providing immediate or
cooperation for the war effort. unequivocal self-governance.
Made by the British government under the Viceroy Lord The possibility of partition and the limited scope of
Linlithgow in August 1940. promised reforms further fueled opposition.
Key Proposals: The failure of the Cripps Mission intensified the demand for
Promised increased Indian participation in governance after full and immediate independence.
the war.
Offered some reforms aimed at gradually increasing Indian Quit India Movement
representation in the administration. Quit India Movement was a massive anti-colonial struggle
Lacked clear details on the structure and timeline for self- in India, launched on August 8, 1942, under the leadership
government. of Mahatma Gandhi, who gave the mantra of “Do or Die”
during this Movement.The Quit India Movement, also
Rejection by Indian Nationalists: known as the August Kranti
Viewed as too vague and incremental, falling short of the
demand for full independence. Causes of the Quit India Movement
Leaders like those in the Indian National Congress saw it as Failure of the Cripps Mission (March 1942) – The British
an inadequate measure that maintained British control. government sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India with a proposal
Outcome: for Dominion Status after the war, but Congress rejected it
The offer failed to bridge the gap between British proposals due to its vague terms.
and Indian aspirations, deepening dissatisfaction among the World War II Impact – The British dragged India into the
freedom movement. war without consulting Indian leaders, leading to
widespread resentment.
2. Cripps Mission (1942) Repression by the British – The British government had
Launched in the midst of World War II to win Indian been suppressing nationalists, causing frustration among
support for the war effort. Indians.
Led by Sir Stafford Cripps, a senior British minister, in Rising Unemployment and Economic Hardship – The war
March 1942. led to inflation, food shortages, and suffering, fueling public
Key Proposals: anger.
Offered that India would be granted Dominion status after Inspiration from Past Movements – The success of the Non-
the war. Cooperation Movement (1920-22) and Civil Disobedience
Promised the formation of a constituent assembly to frame Movement (1930-34) motivated Indians to intensify their
a new constitution. fight for independence.
Included provisions for elected Indian representatives to
have a role in determining India's future government Phases of the Movement
structure. Leadership Arrest & Suppression – Almost all prominent
The offer was conditional on Indian cooperation during the leaders were arrested immediately.
war and left several key issues, such as immediate power Mass Struggle – People resorted to protests, strikes, and
transfer and specifics on federal structure, unresolved. sabotage.
Parallel Governments Formed – Underground leaders like
Rejection by Indian Leaders: Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, and Aruna
The proposal was criticized for its vagueness and lack of Asaf Ali continued the movement. Parallel governments
concrete guarantees. were set up in places like:
 22

Ballia (U.P.) – Chittu Pandey Plebiscite (referendum) in Muslim-majority areas (North-

Tamluk (Bengal) – Satish Samant West and East India) after independence to decide whether
Satara (Maharashtra) – Nana Patil they wanted a separate Pakistan.
If partition happens, agreements on defense, trade, and
British Response communication would be made between both nations.
Brutal Repression – The British used extreme force, The Muslim League must cooperate with Congress in
including police firing, arrests, and public flogging. forming a provisional government during British rule.
Censorship of Press – Newspapers were banned or Reactions
censored. Congress: Some leaders supported it, and Gandhi used it in
Lathi Charge & Shootings – Thousands were killed, and talks with Jinnah (Gandhi-Jinnah Talks, 1944).
over 1 lakh people were arrested. Muslim League: Jinnah rejected it, saying Pakistan should
be a precondition, not a post-independence decision.
Why the Movement Failed? Hindu Mahasabha: Opposed the formula, as it considered
Lack of Centralized Leadership – Most leaders were in jail. partition unacceptable.
Heavy Repression by British – The British crushed the
movement using force. Wavell Plan (1945)
Lack of Mass Coordination – The movement was mostly The Wavell Plan was a proposal by Lord Wavell, the
spontaneous and lacked an organized structure. Viceroy of India (1943–1947), to resolve the political
Impact of the Quit India Movement deadlock between the Indian National Congress and the
Strengthened Nationalism – People’s participation Muslim League regarding India’s independence.
increased. It was introduced in June 1945 and led to the Shimla
Weakened British Rule – The movement showed the British Conference.
that Indians were united.
Post-War Political Developments – The British realized Key Features of the Wavell Plan
they could not rule India without Indian cooperation. Formation of a new Executive Council (similar to a
Path to Independence – The movement played a crucial role cabinet), where all members except the Viceroy and
in achieving independence in 1947. Commander-in-Chief would be Indians.
Though the Quit India Movement was suppressed, it proved Equal representation for Hindus and Muslims in the
to be the final mass struggle against British rule. It set the Executive Council.
stage for India’s independence in 1947. The Executive Council would function like a government,
but the British would retain control over defense and foreign
Rajaji Formula (C. Rajagopalachari Formula) affairs.
The Rajaji Formula was a proposal put forward by C. No separate Pakistan – The plan aimed at unity between
Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) in 1944 to resolve the conflict Congress and the Muslim League.
between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim Representation of minorities (Dalits, Sikhs, etc.) would be
Leage over the demand for Pakistan. It aimed to find a ensured.
middle ground for India's independence and a potential
partition. Shimla Conference (June–July 1945)
The Wavell Plan was discussed at the Shimla Conference.
Key Provisions of Rajaji Formula Congress wanted all Indians to be part of the Council, while
Muslim League to support India's independence from Jinnah demanded only Muslim League members to
British rule. represent Muslims.
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The conference failed due to Jinnah’s insistence on the An Interim Government would be formed with Indian
League being the sole representative of Indian Muslims, leaders under British rule.
which Congress rejected.
Reaction to the Plan
Results of the Wavell Plan Congress: Accepted the plan but rejected the grouping of
Failure due to the deadlock between Congress and the provinces.
Muslim League. Muslim League: Initially accepted, but later rejected it and
Increased Hindu-Muslim divide, paving the way for called for "Direct Action Day" on 16th August 1946,
partition. leading to riots.
Led to the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) and later India’s British Government: Approved the plan and tried to
independence in 1947. implement it.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) Impact of the Cabinet Mission Plan

The Cabinet Mission Plan was proposed by the British Led to the formation of an Interim Government in
government in 1946 to discuss India’s future governance September 1946, with Jawaharlal Nehru as the head.
and resolve the conflict between the Indian National Increased communal tensions, leading to Partition.
Congress and the Muslim League over Pakistan. Ultimately failed, paving the way for the Mountbatten Plan
The mission arrived in India on 24th March 1946 and (1947), which led to the Partition of India and Pakistan.
included:
Lord Pethick-Lawrence (Secretary of State for India) Mountbatten Plan (1947)
Sir Stafford Cripps (President of the Board of Trade) The Mountbatten Plan was proposed by Lord Louis
A. V. Alexander (First Lord of the Admiralty) Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, on 3rd June 1947to
solve the political crisis and finalize India’s independence.
Objectives of the Cabinet Mission It led to the Partition of India and the creation of Pakistan.
To form a constitutional framework for India’s
independence. Key Features of the Mountbatten Plan
To preserve India's unity while addressing Muslim India to be partitioned into two dominions – India and
League’s demand for Pakistan. Pakistan.
To set up an interim government until a final constitution
was drafted. Provinces to decide their future:
Punjab and Bengal would be divided based on Hindu-
Key Features of the Cabinet Mission Plan Muslim majority.
No Partition of India – Pakistan was not accepted as a Sindh, Baluchistan, and NWFP could choose to join India
separate nation. or Pakistan.
Formation of a Constituent Assembly – To draft India’s new Princely States were given the option to join India, Pakistan,
Constitution. or remain independent.
Three Groups (Sections) in Provinces – A Boundary Commission under Sir Cyril Radcliffe was
Group A: Hindu-majority provinces (Madras, Bombay, appointed to decide the borders of India and Pakistan.
Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar, Orissa). India and Pakistan to become independent before 15 August
Group B: Muslim-majority provinces (Punjab, Sindh, 1947.
NWFP, Baluchistan). A separate Constituent Assembly for Pakistan was created
Group C: Bengal and Assam. to frame its Constitution.
Each group would have autonomy to make its own laws.
 24

Reactions to the Plan Fort William College (1800) – To train civil servants.
sCongress: Accepted partition as the only solution to avoid Lord Hastings (1813–1823)
further communal violence. Ended the Peshwa rule and annexed Maratha territories.
Muslim League: Accepted, as it fulfilled Jinnah’s demand Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818).
for Pakistan. Abolished censorship of the press.
Hindu Mahasabha: Strongly opposed Strengthened the British Army in India.
Impact of the Mountbatten Plan Governor-General of India (1833–1858)
Led to the Indian Independence Act (18 July 1947), granting Lord William Bentinck (1828–1835)
independence to India and Pakistan. Abolition of Sati (1829).
English Education Act (1835) – Introduced English as the
India gained independence on 15 August 1947, and Pakistan medium of instruction.
on 14 August 1947. Suppressed Thuggee and human sacrifices.
Mass migration and communal violence occurred, leading First Medical College (Calcutta, 1835).
to riots and killings. Lord Dalhousie (1848–1856)
Gandhi opposed partition and urged unity, but it was Doctrine of Lapse – Annexed Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, etc.
inevitable. Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–1849) – Annexed Punjab.
Railway, Postal, and Telegraph Reforms – Started railways
Governor-General of Bengal (1773–1833) (1853) from Mumbai to Thane.
Warren Hastings (1773–1785) Widow Remarriage Act (1856).
Regulating Act of 1773 – First step towards British control Governor-General & Viceroy (1858–1947)
in India. Lord Canning (1856–1862)
Pitt’s India Act 1784 – Introduced a dual system of Revolt of 1857.
governance. Government of India Act 1858 – End of East India
Reforms in Judiciary – Established Supreme Court in Company rule.
Calcutta (1774). Indian Penal Code (1860).
Revenue Reforms – Introduced the concept of a Board of First Indian Civil Service (ICS) exam (1859).
Revenue. Lord Lytton (1876–1880)
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782) and Second Anglo- Royal Titles Act (1876) – Queen Victoria declared Empress
Mysore War (1780–1784). of India.
Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793) Vernacular Press Act (1878) – Curbed Indian press.
Permanent Settlement (1793) – Fixed land revenue with Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880).
zamindars. Lord Ripon (1880–1884)
Cornwallis Code – Introduced administrative and judicial Repealed Vernacular Press Act.
reforms. Local Self-Government Act (1882) – Started municipal
Police Reforms – Created the modern police system. governance.
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792) – Defeated Tipu First Factory Act (1881) – Regulated child labor.
Sultan. Supported Ilbert Bill (1883) – Gave Indians judicial rights
Lord Wellesley (1798–1805) over Europeans.
Subsidiary Alliance (1798) – Forced Indian states to accept Lord Curzon (1899–1905)
British control. Partition of Bengal (1905).
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) – Defeated and killed Indian Universities Act (1904) – Tightened control over
Tipu Sultan. universities.
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805) – Weakened Preservation of Ancient Monuments Act (1904).
Maratha power.
 25

Lord Minto (1905–1910) Advocated for Vedic reforms and criticized idol worship.
Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) – Introduced separate Indica (1877) – Meghnad Saha
electorates for Muslims. A scientific and cultural examination of India.
Lord Hardinge (1910–1916) History of India as Told by Its Own Historians (1867–1877)
Annulment of Bengal Partition (1911). – Elliot and Dowson
Capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911). Compilation of Persian chronicles on Indian history.
Lord Chelmsford (1916–1921) The First War of Indian Independence (1857) – Vinayak
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919) – Introduced Damodar Savarkar
Dyarchy in provinces. A reinterpretation of the 1857 revolt as India's first freedom
Rowlatt Act (1919) – Allowed arrest without trial. struggle.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919). A Nation in Making (Late 19th century, published in 1913)
Khilafat & Non-Cooperation Movement (1920). – Surendranath Banerjee
Lord Irwin (1926–1931) An autobiographical account of early Indian nationalism.
Simon Commission (1927). The Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna (1898) – Swami
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931). Saradananda
First Round Table Conference (1930). A biography of Ramakrishna Paramhansa and his spiritual
Lord Linlithgow (1936–1943) teachings.
Government of India Act (1935) – Introduced provincial Raja Yoga (1896) – Swami Vivekananda
autonomy. Introduced Indian philosophy to the Western world.
Start of World War II (1939).
Quit India Movement (1942). Books by British and Foreign Authors:
Lord Mountbatten (1947) The History of British India (1817) – James Mill
Partition of India & Independence (1947). Presented a colonial perspective on Indian history.
Radcliffe Line drawn to divide India and Pakistan. Indian Musalmans (1871) – W.W. Hunter
Discussed the role of Muslims in the 1857 revolt.
Books by Indian Authors The Political Future of India (1880) – Henry Cotton
Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901) – Discussed India's political aspirations under British rule.
Dadabhai Naoroji Empire in Asia (1880s) – R.C. Dutt
Analyzed British economic exploitation and the "Drain of Criticized British economic policies in India.
Wealth" theory. The Sepoy Mutiny and the Rebellion of 1857 – Sir John
Gita Rahasya (1915, written in the late 19th century) – Bal Kaye
Gangadhar Tilak A British perspective on the 1857 revolt.
A reinterpretation of the Bhagavad Gita promoting Our Indian Empire (1858) – Charles MacFarlane
nationalism. Documented British expansion in India.
Anandamath (1882) – Bankim Chandra Chatterjee Caste in India (1896) – Sir Herbert Risley
A nationalist novel featuring the song Vande Mataram. Discussed the caste system and its role in Indian society.
Satyarth Prakash (1875) – Swami Dayanand Saraswati

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