MODULE NAME PAGE

1 SET THEORY AND MATRICES — NOTES 2-12

2 MATHEMATICAL LOGIC — NOTES 13-22
3 GROUP AND SUB-GROUP — NOTES 23-31
4 GRAPH THEORY — NOTES 32-36
5 DATA ANALYSIS — NOTES 37-45

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 SET THEORY
SETS
❖ INTRODUCTION OF SETS
• A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects considered as a single entity.
• Each object in a set is called an element or member of the set.
• Sets are usually represented by curly brackets { } with elements separated by commas, such as
A = {1,2,3}.
• Sets are fundamental for grouping objects that share common properties.
• Sets can be Finite or Infinite.
❖ REPRESENTATION OF SETS
• Sets can be represented in two main ways:
i.Roaster or Tabular Form:
Listing all elements of the set within curly brackets, separated by commas.
Example: A = {1,2,3,4,5}.
ii.Set-Builder Form:
Describing the properties that define the elements of the set often using a variable and a vertical bar |
(meaning “such that”).
Example: B = {x | x is an even number and x ≤ 10} = {2,4,6,8,10}.
• These methods help in defining both finite and infinite sets concisely.
TYPES OF SETS
❖ EMPTY SETS(NULL/VOID)
• The empty set is a set that contains no elements.
• It is unique and is denoted by the symbol ∅ or by a pair of curly braces with nothing inside.
• It is a subset of every set, including itself.
• It has a cardinality (size) of zero.
• Example: A = ∅ or A = { }.
❖ SINGLETON SETS
• A singleton set is a set that contains exactly one element.
• It is the simplest non-empty set.
• The element can be anything: a number, a symbol, another set, etc.
• Singleton sets are useful in various mathematical construction, such as defining ordered pairs.
• Example: B = {5} or C = {“apple”}.
❖ FINITE SETS
• A finite set has a countable number of elements.
• The number of elements is a non-negative integer.
• Finite sets can be empty or contain one or more elements.
• They have a well-defined cardinality (number of elements).
• Example: D = {1,2,3,4} or E = { “red”, “green”, “blue”}.
❖ INFINITE SETS
• An infinite set has no end; it contains an unlimited number of elements.
• Infinite sets can be countably infinite or uncountably infinite.
• They are fundamental in various areas of mathematics, such as calculus and set theory.
• Example:
Countably Infinite: The set of natural numbers.
F = {1,2,3,……}.
Uncountably Infinite: The set of real numbers between 0 and 1.
G = {x | 0 < x < 1}.
❖ EQUIVALENT SETS
• Two sets are equivalent if they have the same cardinality, meaning they contain the same
number of elements, regardless of what those elements are.
• Equivalent sets do not need to have identical elements.
• This set is important in comparing the sizes of infinite sets.
• Example: H = {a,b,c} and I = {1,2,3}.
Sets H and I are equivalent because both have three elements.
❖ EQUAL SETS
• Two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements. Orders and repetition of
elements do not matter.
• Equality is fundamental concept in set theory.
• If every element of set A is in set B and vice versa, then A=B.
• Example: J = {1,2,3} and K = {3,2,1}.
Sets J and K are equal because they contain the same elements.
❖ UNIVERSAL SETS
• The universal set is the set that contains all the objects or elements under consideration for a
particular discussion or problem.
• It is usually denoted by U.
• Every other set in the context is a subset of the universal set.
• The choice of the universal set depends on the context of the problem.
• Example:
Context: Discussing natural numbers.
U = {1,2,3,…}.
Context: Discussing letters in the English alphabet.
U = {A,B,C,…,Z}.
❖ POWER SETS
• The power set of a set A is the set of all possible subsets of A.
• It also include the empty set and A itself.
• It is denoted by P(A) or 2A.
• If set A has n elements, then P(A) has 2n elements.
• The power set is always larger than the original set unless the original set is empty.
• Example: A = {a,b}
P(A) = { ∅, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}.
❖ SUBSET OR SUPERSET
▪ SUBSET
• A set A is a subset of set B (denoted by A ⊆ B) if every element of A is also an element of B.
• If A ⊆ B and A ≠ B, then A is a proper subset of B, denoted A ⊆ B.
• Example: L = {1,2} and M = {1,2,3}.
Here, L ⊆ M and L is a proper subset of M.
▪ SUPERSET
• A set B is a superset of set A (denoted by A ⊇ B) if it contains every element of A.
• If B ⊆ A and B ≠ A, then B is a proper superset of A, denoted A ⊇ B.
• Example: N = {1,2,3} and O = {1,2}.
Here, N ⊇ O and N is a proper superset of O.
❖ SUMMARY TABLE
Type of Set Symbol/Notation Description Example
Empty Set ∅ or {} A set with no elements. A={}
Singleton Set {a} A set with only one element. B = {5}
Finite Set {1, 2, 3} A set with a specific, C = {1, 2, 3, 4}
countable number of
elements.
Infinite Set {1, 2, 3, …} A set with an unlimited D = {1, 2, 3, …}
number of elements.
Equivalent Set A~B Two sets with same number E = {a, b, c},
of elements. F = {1, 2, 3}
Equal Set A=B Two sets with exactly the G = {1, 2, 3},
same elements. H = {3, 2, 1}
Universal Set U A set containing all possible U = {1, 2, 3, …}
elements in a particular
context.
Power Set P(A) or 2A A set containing all possible If I = {a, b}, P(I) =
subsets of a given set, { ∅, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}
including the empty set and
the set itself.
Subset L⊆M A set A is the subset of B if all If J = {1, 2, 3} and K
elements of A are in B. = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then
J ⊆ K.
Superset N⊇O A set B is the superset of A if If J = {1, 2, 3} and K
it contains all elements of A. = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then
K ⊇ J.

VENN DIAGRAM
❖ VENN DIAGRAM
• A Venn diagram is a visual representation of sets and their relationships using overlapping
circles or other shapes.
• Each circle represents a set, and the overlapping areas show the relationships, such as
intersections and unions, between the sets.
 • Venn diagrams are widely used in mathematics, logic, statics, and computer science to illustrate
concept of set theory, probability and logical relationships.
• Venn Diagram—

U Y
9
5, 6, 7, 8
10
1, 2, 3, 4

11
X

BASIC OPERATION ON SETS

❖ UNION
• The union is an operation that combines all the elements from two or more sets into a single
set.
• The union includes every elements from each set, without any duplicates.
• The symbol for union is ∪.
• For two sets A and B, the union is written as : A ∪ B
and is defined as : A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
• Example:
Let:
A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {3, 4, 5}
Then:
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
❖ INTERSECTION
• The intersection is the set of all elements that are common to two or more sets.
• The symbol for the intersection is ∩.
• The intersection includes only elements common yo all sets involved.
• For two sets A and B, the intersection is written as : A ∩ B
and is defined as : A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
• Example:
Let:
A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {3, 4, 5}
Then:
A ∩ B = {3}
❖ DIFFERENCES OF SETS
• The difference of sets refers to the elements that are in one set but not in another.
• It is denoted by the symbol ‘–’ or sometimes ‘\’.
• For two sets A and B, the difference A – B (or A \ B) is defined as : A – B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∉ B}.
 • Example:
Let:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
B = {3, 4, 5, 6}
Then:
A – B = {1, 2}
B – A = {5, 6}
❖ COMPLEMENT OF A SET
• The complement of a set refers to all the elements that are not in the set but are in the
universal set.
• It is denoted by prime symbol (A') or sometimes Ā.
• The complement of A depends on the universal set U.
• If A is a subset of a universal set U, the complement A of is written as: A' = U – A
and is defined as : A' = {x | x ∈ U or x ∉ A}
• Example:
Let:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}(universal set)
A = {2, 4, 6}
Then:
A' = {1, 3, 5}
• The union of a set and its complement is the universal set.
• The intersection of a set and its complement is the empty set.
❖ DISJOINT SETS
• Disjoint Sets are sets that have no elements in common.
• The intersection of two disjoint sets is the empty set.
• Two sets A and B are disjoint is : A ∩ B = {}
• Example:
Let:
A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {4, 5, 6}
Since there are no common elements between A and B, they are disjoint sets.
A ∩ B = {}
❖ CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF TWO SETS
• The Cartesian product of two sets is the set of all ordered pairs formed by taking one element
form each set.
• It is denoted by A × B.
• For two sets A and B, the Cartesian product is: A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A or b ∈ B}
Here, (a, b) represents an ordered pair where a is an element of A and b is the element of B.
• Example:
Let:
A = {1, 2}
B = {x, y}
Then:
A × B = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y)}
 DE MORGAN’S LAW
❖ DE MORGAN’S LAW
• De Morgan’s laws are crucial principle in set theory.
• They describe the relationship between union, intersection, and complement of sets.
• It offers a way to simplify expression and perform logical transformations.
• In set theory there are two laws:—
▪ First Law:
o (A ∪ B)' = A' ∩ B'
➢ The complement of the union of two sets A and B is equal to the intersection of the complements of
A and B.
▪ Second Law:
o (A ∩ B)' = A' ∪ B'
➢ The complement of the intersection of two sets A and B is equal to the union of the complements of
A and B.
• The laws essentially state that complementing a union or an intersection “distributes” the
complement over the operation, but flips the operator (union to intersection or vice versa).
• Example:
Let:
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}(universal set)
A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {3, 4, 5}
First Law:
(A ∪ B) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(A ∪ B)' = {6}
A' = {4, 5, 6}, B' = {1, 2, 6}, A' ∩ B'= {6},
So,
(A ∪ B)' = A' ∩ B'
Second Law:
(A ∩ B) = {3}
(A ∩ B)' = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A' = {4, 5, 6}, B' = {1, 2, 6}, A' ∪ B'= {1, 2, 4, 5, 6},
So,
(A ∩ B)' = A' ∪ B'
DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS
❖ DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS
• The Distributive Laws describe how union and intersection distribute over each other.
• These are fundamental for simplifying and solving set expressions.
• These laws similar to the distributive property in arithmetic.
• These laws allow expression with both union and intersection to be rewritten in an equivalent
form.
• In set theory there are two distributive laws:—
▪ Union Distributives Over Intersection:
o A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
➢ This means that taking the union of A with the intersection of B and C is equivalent to the
intersection of the unions of A with B and A with C.
 ▪ Intersection Distributives Over Union:
o A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
➢ This means that taking the intersection of A with the union of B and C is equivalent to the union of
the intersections of A with B and A with C.
• Example:
▪ Union Distributives Over Intersection:
Let:
A = {1, 2}
B = {2, 3}
C = {3, 4}
Step-By-Step:
Compute B ∩ C:
B ∩ C = {6}
Compute A ∪ (B ∩ C):
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = A ∪ (3) = {1, 2, 3}
Compute (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C):
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3}
A ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4}
(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)= {1, 2, 3}
Result:
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
▪ Intersection Distributives Over Union:
Let:
A = {1, 2}
B = {2, 3}
C = {3, 4}
Step-By-Step:
Compute B ∪ C:
B ∪ C = {2, 3, 4}
Compute A ∩ (B ∪ C):
A ∩ (B ∪ C)= {1, 2} ∩ {2, 3, 4} = {2}
Compute (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C):
A ∩ B = {2}
A∩C=∅
(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = {2} ∪ ∅ = {2}
Result:
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

MATRICES
MATRIX
❖ INTRODUCTION OF MATRIX
• A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers, symbol, or expressions into rows and
columns.
• It is commonly used in mathematics, physics, computer science, and engineering to represent
and manipulate data or systems.
• Each value inside the matrix is called an element.
• The position of each element is defined by its row and column index.
❖ REPRESENTATION OF MATRIX
• A matrix with m rows and n columns is said to have dimension m × n (read as “m by n”).
• Matrices are often represented using uppercase letters.
• The elements are represented by lowercase letter with subscript indicating their position.
• The general form is :
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
[ ]
𝟒 𝟓 𝟔
Where aij refers to the element at row i and column j.
TYPES OF MATRICES
❖ ROW MATRIX
• A matrix with only one row.
𝑨 = [𝟏 𝟐 𝟑]
❖ COLUMN MATRIX
• A matrix with only one column.
𝟏
𝑩 = [𝟐]
𝟑
❖ SQUARE MATRIX
• A matrix with the same number of rows and columns (m = n).
𝟏 𝟐
𝑪=[ ]
𝟑 𝟒
❖ DIAGONAL MATRIX
• A square matrix where all elements except the diagonal are zero.
𝟓 𝟎 𝟎
𝑫 = [𝟎 𝟖 𝟎]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟑
❖ RECTANGULAR MATRIX
• A matrix where the number of rows and column are not equal (m ≠ n).
𝟏 𝟐
𝑬 = [𝟑 𝟒]
𝟓 𝟔
❖ SCALAR MATRIX
• A diagonal matrix where all the diagonal elements are equal.
𝟕 𝟎 𝟎
𝑭 = [𝟎 𝟕 𝟎]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟕
❖ SYMMETRIC MATRIX
• A square matrix that is equal to its transpose (A = AT).
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑮 = [𝟐 𝟒 𝟓]
𝟑 𝟓 𝟔
❖ UNIT OR IDENTITY MATRIX
• A square matrix with 1s on the diagonal and 0s elsewhere.
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑯 = [𝟎 𝟏 𝟎]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
❖ UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRIX
• A square matrix where all elements below the diagonal are zero.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑰 = [𝟎 𝟒 𝟓]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟔
❖ LOWER TRIANGULAR MATRIX
• A square matrix where all elements above the diagonal are zero.
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑱 = [𝟐 𝟑 𝟎]
𝟒 𝟓 𝟔
❖ SINGULAR MATRIX
• A square matrix whose determinant is 0.
𝟐 𝟒 (𝑫𝒆𝒕(𝑲) = 𝟎)
𝑲=[ ]
𝟏 𝟐
❖ NON-SINGULAR MATRIX
• A square matrix whose determinant is not 0.
𝟏 𝟐 (𝑫𝒆𝒕(𝑳) ≠ 𝟎)
𝑳=[ ]
𝟑 𝟒
❖ EQUAL MATRICES
• Two matrices are equal if:
They have the same direction.
All corresponding elements are equal.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 (𝑨 = 𝑩)
𝑭=[ ], 𝑭=[ ]
𝟑 𝟒 𝟑 𝟒
BASIC OPERATION ON MATRICES
❖ MATRIX ADDITION
• Adding corresponding elements of two matrices.
• Matrices must have the same dimensions.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟓 𝟔
𝑨=[ ], 𝑩=[ ]
𝟑 𝟒 𝟕 𝟖
𝟏+𝟓 𝟐+𝟔 𝟔 𝟖
𝑨+𝑩=[ ]=[ ]
𝟑+𝟕 𝟒+𝟖 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐
❖ MATRIX SUBSTRACTION
• Subtracting corresponding elements of two matrices.
• Matrices must have the same dimensions.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟓 𝟔
𝑨=[ ], 𝑩=[ ]
𝟑 𝟒 𝟕 𝟖
𝟏−𝟓 𝟐−𝟔 −𝟒 −𝟒
𝑨−𝑩 =[ ]=[ ]
𝟑−𝟕 𝟒−𝟖 −𝟒 −𝟒
❖ SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
• Multiplying each element of a matrix by a constant (scalar0).
𝟏 𝟐
𝒌 = 𝟐, 𝑨=[ ]
𝟑 𝟒
𝟐 .𝟏 𝟐 .𝟐 𝟐 𝟒
𝒌𝑨 = [ ]=[ ]
𝟐 .𝟑 𝟐 .𝟒 𝟔 𝟖
❖ MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
• The dot product of rows of the first matrix with columns of the second matrix.
• Number of columns in the first matrix must equal the number of rows in the second matrix.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟓 𝟔
𝑨=[ ], 𝑩=[ ]
𝟑 𝟒 𝟕 𝟖
(𝟏 . 𝟓 + 𝟐 . 𝟕 ) (𝟏 . 𝟔 + 𝟐 . 𝟖 ) 𝟏𝟗 𝟐𝟐
𝑨𝑩 = [ ]=[ ]
(𝟑 . 𝟓 + 𝟒 . 𝟕 ) (𝟑 . 𝟔 + 𝟒 . 𝟖 ) 𝟒𝟑 𝟓𝟎
❖ TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
• Flipping a matrix over its diagonal, interchanging rows and columns.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑨=[ ]
𝟒 𝟓 𝟔
𝟏 𝟒
𝑨𝑻 = [𝟐 𝟓]
𝟑 𝟔
RANK OF A MATRIX
❖ RANK OF A MATRIX
• The rank of a matrix is the maximum number of linearly independent rows or columns in the
matrix.
• It represents the dimension of the row space or column space of the matrix.
• The rank of matrix is always less than or equal to the smaller of it’s dimensions (Rank(A) ≤
min(m, n)), where m × n is the dimension of the matrix.
• The rank is the same whether calculated using rows or columns.
❖ METHOD TO FIND RANK
• There are 3 ways to find the rank of a matrix:—
▪ Row Reduction (Echelon Form)
➢ Convert the matrix to row echelon form or reduced row echelon form using row operations.
➢ The number of non-zero rows in the echelon form is the rank.
▪ Determinant Method (For Square Matrices)
➢ The rank is equal to the size of the largest square submatrix with a non-zero determinant.
▪ Singular Value Decomposition (SVD)
➢ For advanced applications, rank can also be determined using the singular values of a matrix.
▪ Examples
➢ Example 1: Full Rank Matrix
𝟏 𝟐
𝑨=[ ]
𝟑 𝟒
o Step 1: Convert to row echelon form:
𝟏 𝟐
[ ]
𝟎 𝟐
o Number of non-zero rows = 2.
o Rank = 2 (Full rank, as Rank(A) = min(2, 2)).
➢ Example 2: Rank-Deficient Matrix
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑩 = [𝟐 𝟒 𝟔 ]
𝟑 𝟔 𝟗
o Step 1: Convert to row echelon form:
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
[𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 ]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
 o Number of non-zero rows = 1.
o Rank = 1.
DETERMINANTS
❖ DETERMINANTS
• The determinant is a scalar value that can be calculated from its elements.
• It provides important properties of the matrix, such as invertibility.
• Determinants are defined only for square matrices (n × n).
• The determinant of a matrix changes sign if two rows (or column) are swapped.
❖ PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
• If any rows or column is entirely zeros, the determinant is 0.
• Swapping two rows (or columns) reverses the sign of the determinant.
• Multiplying a row or column by a scalar multiplies the determinant by the same scalar.
• If two rows or column are identical, the determinant is 0.
• The determinant of the identity matrix is always 1.
❖ FORMULA FOR DETERMINANTS
• There are two ways to find determinants:—
▪ For a 2 × 2 Matrix:
𝒂 𝒃
𝑨=[ ]
𝒄 𝒅
The determinant is:
𝑫𝒆𝒕(𝑨) = 𝒂𝒅 – 𝒃𝒄
Example:
𝟐 𝟑
𝑨=[ ], 𝑫𝒆𝒕(𝑨) = (𝟐 . 𝟓) − (𝟑 . 𝟒) = 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐 = −𝟐
𝟒 𝟓
▪ For a 3 × 3 Matrix:
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
𝑨=[ 𝒅 𝒆 𝒇]
𝒈 𝒉 𝒊
The determinant is:
𝑫𝒆𝒕(𝑨) = 𝒂(𝒆𝒊 − 𝒇𝒉)– 𝒃(𝒅𝒊 − 𝒇𝒈) + 𝒄(𝒅𝒉 − 𝒆𝒈)
Example:
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝑨 = [𝟒 𝟓 𝟔],
𝟕 𝟖 𝟗
𝑫𝒆𝒕 𝑨 = 𝟏 (𝟓 . 𝟗 − (𝟔 . 𝟖)) − 𝟐 (𝟒 . 𝟗) − (𝟔 . 𝟕)) + 𝟑((𝟒 . 𝟖) − (𝟓 . 𝟕))
( ) ( ) (
𝑫𝒆𝒕(𝑨) = 𝟏(−𝟑) − 𝟐(−𝟔) + 𝟑(−𝟑) = −𝟑 + 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟗 = 𝟎
 MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
MATHEMATIC LOGIC
❖ INTRODUCTION OF MATHEMATIC LOGIC
• Mathematic Logic is the study of reasoning using symbols and formal rules.
• It focuses on understanding and analyzing mathematical statements to determine whether
they are true or false.
• Mathematical logic is the “science of correct thinking” in mathematics.
• It helps ensure that conclusion are valid and consistent based on given rules.
• It involves creating a structure for thinking logically about problems.
PROPOSITION
❖ PROPOSITION OR STATEMENT
• A proposition or statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both at
the same time.
• It expresses a fact and has a definite truth value.
• It cannot be a question, command, or expression of opinion because such sentence lack a
definite truth value.
• Propositions are the building blocks of logic.
• They can be combined using logical operators.
❖ TRUTH VALUE
• Truth Value refers to the status of a proposition as being either true (T) or false (F).
• Every proposition in logic must have a definite truth value.
• It is either true or false, but not both at the same time.
• Truth values are binary.
• A proposition’s truth value depends on whether the statement accurately reflects reality or
satisfies a given condition.
• Truth values are used to evaluate the validity of compound statements formed with logical
operators.
❖ COMPOUND PROPOSITION
• A compound proposition is a logical statement formed by combining two or more simple
prepositions using logical operators or connectives.
• It helps in constructing and verifying complex logical arguments.
• It used in computer science, algorithms, and AI to model logical reasoning.
• Truth values of compound proposition depend on the truth table of the individual propositions
and the operators used.
❖ CONNECTIVES
• Connectives or logical operators are symbols or words used in logic to combine simple
proposition into compound propositions.
• They determine the truth value of the compound statement based on the truth values of its
components.
• It used in constructing logical arguments, computer programming, circuit design, and decision-
making systems.
• Types of Logical Operators or Connectives:—
▪ AND (Conjunction):
o Symbol: ∧
o Combines two propositions and is true only if both propositions are true.
o Truth Table:
P Q P∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

▪ OR (Disjunction):
o Symbol: ∨
o Combines two propositions and is true if at least one propositions are true.
o Truth Table:
P Q P∨Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

▪ NOT (Negation):
o Symbol: ¬ OR ~
o Reverses the truth value of a single proposition.
o Truth Table:
P ¬P
T F
F T

▪ IF-THEN (Implication):
o Symbol: → OR =>
o The compound statement is false only if the first proposition is true and the second is false.
o Truth Table:
P Q P→Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
 ▪ IF-AND-ONLY IF (Biconditional):
o Symbol: ↔ OR <=>
o The compound statement is true only if both propositions have the same truth value.
o Truth Table:
P Q P↔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

❖ TRUTH TABLE
• A truth table is a tool used in logic to display all possible truth values of a proposition or a
compound proposition based on the truth values of its components.
• It helps determine when a statement is true or false under various conditions.
• Truth tables ensure every possible case is covered and help understand how logical expression
behave.
• The number of truth values in a truth tables depends on the number of propositions involved.
• We can calculate the total number of truth value combination using the formula :
Number of rows: 2n
CONVERSE, CONTRAPOSITIVE, AND INVERSE
❖ CONVERSE
• The converse of a conditional statement 𝑷 → 𝑸 is obtained by swapping the hypothesis and
conclusion.
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆: 𝑸 → 𝑷
• The truth value of the converse is not always the same as the original statement.
• Example:
Original: “If it rains (𝑷), then the ground gets wet (𝑸).”
Converse: “If the ground gets wet (𝑸), then it rains (𝑷).”
❖ CONTRAPOSITIVE
• The contrapositive of a conditional statement 𝑷 → 𝑸 is obtained by:
i. Swapping 𝑷 and 𝑸.
ii. Negating both.
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆: ¬𝑸 → ¬𝑷
• The contrapositive is logically equivalent to the original statement.
• A conditional statement and it’s contrapositive always have the same truth value.
• Example:
Original: “If it rains (¬𝑷), then the ground gets wet (¬𝑸).”
Converse: “If the ground does not get wet (¬𝑸), then it does not rain (¬𝑷).”
❖ INVERSE
• The inverse of a conditional statement 𝑷 → 𝑸 is obtained by negating the hypothesis and
conclusion without swapping them.
𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆: ¬𝑷 → ¬𝑸
• The truth value of the inverse is not always the same as the original statement.
 • Example:
Original: “If it rains (𝑷), then the ground gets wet (𝑸).”
Converse: “If it does not rain (𝑷), then the ground does not get wet (𝑸).”
❖ SUMMARY TABLE
• For 𝑷 → 𝑸
Type Form Example
Original 𝑷→𝑸 “If it rains, then the ground gets wet.”
Converse 𝑸→𝑷 “If the ground gets wet, then it rains.”
Contrapositive ¬𝑸 → ¬𝑷 “If the ground does not get wet, then it does
not rain.”
Inverse ¬𝑷 → ¬𝑸 “If it does not rain, then the ground does not
get wet”

NEGATION OF COMPOUND STATEMENT

❖ NEGATION OF A CONJUNCTION (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒)
• The negation of a conjunction is the disjunction of the negation of it’s components.
• Formula: ¬(𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) = ¬𝒑 ∨ ¬𝒒
If it is not true that both 𝒑 and 𝒒 are true, then at least one of them must be false.
• Truth Table:
𝒑 𝒒 𝐩∧𝐪 ¬(𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ¬𝒑 ∨ ¬𝒒
T T T F F
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T

❖ NEGATION OF A DISJUNCTION (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒)
• The negation of a disjunction is the conjunction of the negation of it’s components.
• Formula: ¬(𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) = ¬𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒
If it is not true that either 𝒑 or 𝒒 is true, then both must be false.
• Truth Table:
𝒑 𝒒 𝑷∨𝑸 ¬(𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ¬𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒
T T T F F
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F T T

❖ NEGATION OF A NEGATION (¬𝒑)

• The negation of a negation is the original proposition itself.
• Formula: ¬(¬𝒑) = 𝒑
Double negation cancels out, leaving the original truth value unchanged.
• Truth Table:
𝒑 ¬𝒑 ¬(¬𝒑)
T F T
F T F

❖ NEGATION OF A CONDITIONAL (𝒑 → 𝒒)
• The negation of a conditional is the conjunction of the first statement being true and the
second being false.
• Formula: ¬(𝒑 → 𝒒) = 𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒
If it is not true that “𝒑 implies 𝒒”, then 𝒑 is true 𝒒 is false.
• Truth Table:
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 ¬(𝒑 → 𝒒) 𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒
T T T F F
T F F T T
F T T F F
F F T F F

❖ NEGATION OF A BI-CONDITIONAL (𝒑 ↔ 𝒒)
• The negation of a bi-conditional is the exclusive disjunction (XOR) of the components.
• Formula: ¬(𝒑 ↔ 𝒒) = (𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒) ∨ (¬𝒑 ∧ 𝒒)
If it is not true that 𝒑 and 𝒒 have the same truth value, then one is true while the other is false.
• Truth Table:
𝒑 𝒒 𝒑↔𝒒 ¬(𝒑 ↔ 𝒒) (𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒) ∨ (𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒)
T T T F F
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F T F F

ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS
❖ ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITION
• The algebra of propositions, also known as propositional algebra.
• It is a set of rules and laws used to manipulate logical statements in propositional logic.
• These rules are analogous to the law of algebra and are used to simplify, transform, and
analyze logical expressions.
• Basic Laws of Propositional Algebra—
▪ Idempotent Law—
o 𝒑∨𝒑=𝒑
o 𝒑∧𝒑=𝒑
A proposition combined with itself (using OR or AND) is equivalent to itself.
 ▪ Associative Law—
o (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ∨ 𝐫 = 𝒑 ∨ (𝒒 ∨ 𝐫)
o (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ∧ 𝐫 = 𝒑 ∧ (𝒒 ∧ 𝐫)
Grouping does not affect the result of OR or AND operations.
▪ Commutative Law—
o 𝒑∨𝒒= 𝒒∨𝒑
o 𝒑∧𝒒= 𝒒∧𝒑
The order of propositions in an OR or AND operation does not affect the result.
▪ Distributive Law—
o 𝒑 ∨ (𝒒 ∧ 𝐫) = (𝒑 ∨ 𝐪) ∧ (𝒑 ∨ 𝐫)
o 𝒑 ∧ (𝒒 ∨ 𝐫) = (𝒑 ∧ 𝐪) ∨ (𝒑 ∧ 𝐫)
These laws allow the distribution of one operator over another.
▪ Identity Law—
o 𝒑∨𝑭=𝒑
o 𝒑∧𝑻=𝒑
o 𝒑 ∨ 𝑻 = 𝑻(Domination Laws)
o 𝒑 ∧ 𝑭 = 𝑭(Domination Laws)
A proposition combined with neutral element(False for OR, True for AND) leaves it unchanged.
A proposition combined with dominating element(True for OR, False for AND) results in the
dominating element(also known as domination laws).
▪ Complement Law—
o 𝒑 ∨ ¬𝒑 = 𝑻
o 𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒑 = 𝑭
o ¬𝑻 = 𝑭
o ¬𝑭 = 𝑻
A proposition combined with its negation always yields a constant truth value.
▪ Involution Law—
o ¬(¬𝒑) = 𝒑
Negating a negation bring back the original proposition.
▪ De Morgan’s Law—
o ¬(𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) = ¬𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒
o ¬(𝒑 ∧ 𝒑) = ¬𝒑 ∨ ¬𝒒
Negation distributes across conjunctions and disjunctions with a flip in operator.
LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
❖ LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
• Logical equivalence between two propositions 𝒑 and 𝒒 means they always have the same truth
value in every possible situation.
• It is denoted as 𝒑 ≡ 𝒒.
• Two statements are logically equivalent if their columns in a truth table match under all
possible truth assignments.
TAUTOLOGY, CONTRADICTION, AND CONTIGENCY
❖ TAUTOLOGY
• A proposition that is always true, regardless of the truth values of its components.
• It holds true in every possible scenario.
• Tautologies are used to establish universally valid principles in logic.
• Any proposition logically equivalent to “True” is a tautology.
• Example:
𝒑 ∨ ¬𝒑
It is a tautology because whether 𝒑 is true or false, 𝒑 ∨ ¬𝒑 will always be true.
❖ CONTRADICTION
• A proposition is a contradiction if it is always false regardless of its components.
• It can never be true in any scenario.
• Contradiction highlight impossible or invalid logical constructs.
• Any proposition logically equivalent to “False” is a contradiction.
• Example:
𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒑
It is a contradiction because 𝒑 and ¬𝒑 cannot both be true simultaneously.
❖ CONTINGENCY
• A proposition is a contingency if its truth value depends on the truth values of its components.
• It is true in some cases and false in others.
• Contingent propositions reflect statements that are neither universally valid (like tautologies)
nor universally false (like contradictions).
• Contingencies are often compared to other statements using logical equivalence to find shared
conditions.
• Example:
𝒑∨𝒒
It is a contingency because its truth depends on the values of 𝒑 and ¬𝒑.

SWITCHING CIRCUITS
SWITCHING CIRCUITS
❖ SWITCH
• A switch is an electrical device used to control the flow of current in a circuit.
• It allow a user to turn a circuit on (closed) or off (open) by manually or automatically altering
the connection.
• Switches are integral components in electronic and electrical systems for controlling devices,
managing signals, or enabling logic operations.
• It can be controlled by sensors, timers or electronic signals or also activated by physical action
by manually pressing or flipping it.
• There are four types of switches—
▪ Mechanical Switches:
It operated manually, often used in household and industrial applications.
▪ Electronic Switches:
It is used electronic components to control current, often found in digital circuits.
▪ Relays:
It is electrically operated switches used to control high-power circuits.
▪ Reed Switches:
It is magnetically operated for use in sensors or alarms.
❖ SWITCH CIRCUITS
• A switch circuit is an electrical circuit that uses one or more switches to control the flow of
current.
• Switch circuits are foundational in both analog and digital systems.
• It’s used to implement control mechanisms and logical operations.
• It provides the electrical energy.
• It uses wires or pathways as a conductors for current to flow.
• There are four types of Switch Circuits—
▪ Single Switch Circuit:
It contains one switch to control a single load.
▪ Multi-Switch Circuit:
It contains multiple switch to control one or more loads.
▪ Logic Switch Circuit:
It implements logical operations using switches.
▪ Automatic Switch Circuit:
It uses sensors or electronic components to control switching automatically.
• Figure of Switch Circuit—

❖ LOGIC REPRESENTATION IN SWITCH CIRCUITS

• Switch circuits can represent Boolean logic operations.
• There are three types of operations—
▪ AND Operation:
It requires all switches to be closed for the circuit to work.
▪ OR Operation:
The circuit work if any switch is closed.
▪ NOT Operation:
It uses a configuration where the switch toggles the state (on/off).
❖ SYMBOLIC FORM OF SWITCH CIRCUITS
• Symbolic forms are used to represent the arrangement and behaviour of switches.
• These symbols help to design and understand circuits, especially for implementing logic
operations.
• Some Basic Switch Symbols—
▪ Single-Pole Single-Throw (SPST):
Symbol: A simple switch with one input and one output.
Function: Connects or disconnect the circuit.
 Logical Representation: Acts like a binary state (ON = 1, OFF = 0).
▪ Single-Pole Double-Throw (SPDT):
Symbol: A switch that toggles between two outputs.
Function: Selects one of two paths for current flow.
Logical Representation: Implements an XOR operation.
▪ Double-Pole Single-Throw (DPST):
Symbol: A switch that controls two separate circuits simultaneously.
Function: ON or OFF for two circuits.
Logical Representation: Equivalent to two independent SPST switches.
▪ Double-Pole Double-Throw (DPDT):
Symbol: A switch with two inputs and four outputs, toggling between two pairs of circuits.
Function: Used for reversing current or selecting between two inputs.
Logical Representation: Implements complex control logic.
❖ EQUIVALENT SWITCH
• An equivalent switch is a simplified representation of a combination of switches or circuits that
performs the same logical function as the original configuration.
• It is a single switch or simplified arrangement that exhibits the same input-output relationship
as the complex circuit.
• It used to optimize the design and reduce the number of components in a circuit.
• It reduce the complexity of a switch circuit for easier analysis or implementation.
• It represents logical operations like AND, OR, and NOT using a single equivalent Switch.
❖ COMPLEMENTARY SWITCH
• A complementary switch is switching circuit or device where two switches work in opposite
states to ensure complementary behaviour.
• Its work when one switch is ON, the other is OFF, and vice versa.
• Complementary switches are widely used in digital circuits, particularly in
CMOS(Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) technology.
• It often used to implement logical negation or dual-output designs.
• It usually common in low-power circuits as they minimize power consumption.
❖ INPUT OUTPUT TABLE
• An input-output table is a structured representation.
• It shows how the output of a circuit are derived based on the combinations of its inputs.
• It is essentially a truth table, where each row corresponds to a specific combination of input
values and the resulting output(s).
• It used to map logic operations in digital and switching circuits.
• It helps verify that circuits behave as expected.
• It also assist in understanding the relationship between input and outputs.
❖ TWO SWITCHES IN SERIES
• Configuration:
Two switches are placed one after the other in a single path.
• Operation:
The circuit is ON only if both switches are ON.
• Logical Representation:
Performs an AND operation- 𝑨 ∧ 𝑩.
• Truth table:
Switch A(Input) Switch B(Input) Output(Light)
0 (OFF) 0 (OFF) 0 (OFF)
0 (OFF) 1(ON) 0 (OFF)
1(ON) 0 (OFF) 0 (OFF)
1(ON) 1(ON) 1(ON)

• Figure:

❖ TWO SWITCHES IN PARALLEL

• Configuration:
Two switches are connected in separate paths, merging to a single output.
• Operation:
The circuit is ON if either switch is ON, or both are ON.
• Logical Representation:
Performs an OR operation- 𝑨 ∨ 𝑩.
• Truth table:
Switch A(Input) Switch B(Input) Output(Light)
0 (OFF) 0 (OFF) 0 (OFF)
0 (OFF) 1(ON) 1(ON)
1(ON) 0 (OFF) 1(ON)
1(ON) 1(ON) 1(ON)

• Figure:
 BINARY OPERATION
BINARY OPERATION
❖ INTRODUCTION OF BINARY OPERATORS
• A binary operation is a mathematical operation that involves two operands (values or
variables).
• It takes two input values and produces a single output value.
• The operation can be applied to numbers, vectors, or other mathematical structures.
• The result of a binary operation depends on the operation itself.
• Binary operations include—
Addition | Subtraction | Multiplication | Division | Logical AND | Logical OR | Modulus.
❖ TYPES OF BINARY OPERATORS
• There are 5 basics types of binary operations:—
▪ Commutative Operation:
✓ A commutative operation is one where the order of the operands doesn’t matter.
✓ If you swap the operands around, the result will stay the same.
✓ So, Addition and Multiplication are only work with commutative binary operations.
✓ It is written as :- 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒃 + 𝒂 | 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒃 × 𝒂
▪ Associative Operation:
✓ An associative operation means that when you perform the operation on three numbers, the way
you group them doesn’t change the result.
✓ Same as commutative operation, Addition and multiplication are only work with associative binary
operations.
✓ It is written as :- (𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒄 = 𝒂 + (𝒃 + 𝒄) | (𝒂 × 𝒃) × 𝒄 = 𝒂 × (𝒃 × 𝒄)
▪ Distributive Operation:
✓ A distributive operation is when one operation distributes over another.
✓ It works as Multiplication distributes over addition.
✓ It is also called distributive property.
✓ It is written as: 𝒂 × (𝒃 + 𝒄) = (𝒂 × 𝒃) + (𝒂 × 𝒄)
▪ Identity Element:
✓ An identity element is a special number that, when used in an operation with any other number.
✓ It doesn’t change the number.
✓ It works in Addition with 0 and in Multiplication with 1.
✓ It is written as :- 𝒂 + 𝟎 | 𝒂 × 𝟏
▪ Inverse Element:
✓ An inverse element is a number that “cancels out” another number when combined using binary
operation.
✓ It brings the back to the identity element.
✓ For Addition, the inverse of a number is its opposite.
✓ For Multiplication, the inverse of a number is its reciprocal.
𝟏
✓ It is written as :- 𝒂 + (−𝒂) = 𝟎 | 𝒂 × 𝒂 = 𝟏
❖ PROPERTIES OF BINARY OPERATION
• These properties help us understand and classify binary operations.
Property Definition
Closure Result of operation on two elements is in the same set.
Commutative 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂 for all 𝒂, 𝒃.
Associative (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒄) for all 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄.
Identity Element There exists an element 𝒆 such that 𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 = 𝒂 for all 𝒂.
Inverse Element For each 𝒂, there exists an element 𝒃 such that 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒆.
Idempotent 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒂 for all 𝒂.
Distributive 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 + 𝒄) = (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) + (𝒂 ∗ 𝒄) and (𝒂 + 𝒃) ∗ 𝒄 = (𝒂 ∗ 𝒄) +
(𝒃 ∗ 𝒄)
Non-Associative Operation does not satisfy associativity.
Non-commutative Changing the order of operands changes the result.

❖ ALGEBRIC STRUCTURE
• A non-empty set 𝑮 together with at least one binary operation defined on it is called an
algebraic structure.
• An algebraic structure is a set of elements combined with one or more operations that satisfy
specific properties or rules.
• These structures help organize mathematical objects and explore their relationships in a more
systematic way.
• The operations on these sets typically follow certain rules like commutativity, associativity, etc.

GROUP
GROUP
❖ INTRODUCTION OF A GROUP
• A group is a pair (𝑮,∗), where 𝑮 is a non-empty set, ∗ is a binary operation defined on 𝑮.
• A group is an algebraic structure consisting of a set of elements along with a binary operation
that satisfies four key properties.
𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 | 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 | 𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 | 𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
• These properties also known as group axiom.
• Groups are foundational in algebra and have application in fields like number theory, geometry.
• Examples—
Addition on Integers:-
Set: 𝒁(all integers)
Operation: Addition(+)
It satisfy all properties for Group.
❖ GROUPOID
• A groupoid is a pair (𝑮,∗), where 𝑮 is a non-empty set, ∗ is a binary operation defined on 𝑮.
• A groupoid is a more general algebraic structure than a group.
• It consists of a set and a binary operation.
• It does not require all the properties of a group except 𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 property.
• Its generalize groups and are useful for studying situations where inverses or identities are not
guaranteed.
• The binary operation defined on a groupoid must produce an element within the same set.
• Examples—
Subtraction on Integers:-
Set: 𝒁(all integers)
Operation: Subtraction(−)
Subtraction applies closure property under Integers.
❖ SEMIGROUP
• A semigroup is a pair (𝑺,∗), where 𝑺 is a non-empty set, ∗ is a binary operation defined on 𝑺.
• A semigroup is an algebraic structure consisting of a set equipped with a binary operation that
satisfies the property of associativity and closure.
• It does not require an identity element or inverses.
• Examples—
Addition on Natural Numbers:-
Set: 𝑵(set of natural numbers)
Operation: Addition(+)
Addition applies both closure and associative property under Natural Numbers.
❖ MONOID
• A monoid is a triple (𝑴,∗, 𝒆), where 𝑴 is a non-empty set, ∗ is a binary operation defined on 𝑴,
𝒆 is an identity element in 𝑴.
• A monoid is an algebraic structure that builds upon a semigroup by introducing an identity
element.
• It consists of a set equipped with a binary operation that satisfies closure, associativity, and the
existence of an identity element.
• Examples—
Addition on Natural Numbers:-
Set: 𝑵(set of natural numbers)
Operation: Addition(+)
Addition applies both closure and associative property under Natural Numbers.
Its also have identity element: 0. If any natural number 𝒂 + 𝟎 = 𝒂 = 𝟎 + 𝒂.
❖ QUATERNION GROUP
• The quaternion group 𝑸8 is the set, 𝑸8 = {±𝟏, ±𝒊, ±𝒋, ±𝒌}
With the following multiplication rules:
i.𝒊2= 𝒋2= 𝒌2= −𝟏,
ii.𝒊𝒋 = 𝒌, 𝒋𝒊 = −𝒌,
iii.𝒋𝒌 = 𝒊, 𝒌𝒋 = −𝒊,
iv.𝒌𝒊 = 𝒋, 𝒊𝒌 = −𝒋,
• The quaternion group, denoted as 𝑸8, is a specific group of order 8 that arises in the study of
quaternions.
• A number system that extends complex numbers is known a quaternions.
• It is non-abelian group.
• It satisfies all the four properties along with non-commutativity.
❖ ABELIAN GROUP
• An abelian group is a group in which the group operation is commutative.
• It is also known as a commutative group.
• It satisfies all the properties include commutative.
• Examples—
(𝒁, +), (𝑸, +), (𝑹, +), 𝒆𝒕𝒄
❖ FINITE GROUP
• A finite group is a group that has a finite number of elements.
• It satisfies the four group properties.
• The order of the group is the number of elements in it.
• The order of the finite group is always a positive integer.
• It can be fully represented by a group table.
• Examples—
(𝒁𝟓, +), (𝑺𝟑, +), 𝒆𝒕𝒄
❖ INFINITE GROUP
• An infinite group is a group that has an infinite number of elements.
• It also satisfies the four group properties.
• The order of the group is infinite.
• It cannot be represented completely in a group table.
• Examples—
(𝒁, +), (𝑹 ∗,×), 𝒆𝒕𝒄
❖ ORDER OF A GROUP
• The order of a group is the number of elements in the group.
• It helps classify and analyze the structure of groups.
• The order of group 𝑮 is denoted by |𝑮|.
• The group’s cardinality is determined by its order.
❖ PROPERTIES OF GROUP
• There is 7 properties which proves a Group.
▪ Theorem 1:- The identity element of a group is a unique element.
o Statement:—
In a group 𝑮, the identity element 𝒆 is unique.
o Explanation:—
The identity element 𝒆 satisfies 𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 = 𝒂 = 𝒆 ∗ 𝒂 for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮. The uniqueness means there can only
be one such 𝒆 in 𝑮.
o Proof:—
Let 𝒆1 and 𝒆2 be two identify elements in a group 𝑮.
By the definition of identity:
𝒆1 ∗ 𝒆2 = 𝒆2 (since 𝒆2 is an identity)
𝒆1 ∗ 𝒆2 = 𝒆1 (since 𝒆1 is an identity)
Therefore, 𝒆1 = 𝒆2
Hence, the identity element in a group is unique.
o Importance:—
The uniqueness of the identity ensures a consistent operation in the group.
It provides a stable reference for other group properties like inverses.
 o Example:—
(𝒁, +),
The identity of the set of integers under addition is 0, because 𝒂 + 𝟎 = 𝒂 = 𝟎 + 𝒂.
(𝑹*,×),
The identity of the set of non-zero real numbers under multiplication is 1, because 𝒂 × 𝟏 = 𝒂.
▪ Theorem 2:- The inverse of each element of a group is unique.
o Statement:—
In a group 𝑮, each element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮 has a unique inverse 𝒂-1 such that 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂-1 = 𝒆.
o Explanation:—
The inverse "undoes" the effect of an element under the group operation.
The uniqueness ensures no ambiguity in determining the inverse.
o Proof:—
Assume 𝒃 and 𝒄 are two inverses of 𝒂.
By the definition of inverse:
𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒆 and 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒆, where 𝒆 is the identity.
Using associativity:
𝒃 = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒆 = 𝒃 ∗ (𝒂 ∗ 𝒄) = (𝒃 ∗ 𝒂) ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒆 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒄.
Hence, 𝒃 = 𝒄, proving uniqueness.
o Importance:—
Simplifies calculations involving group elements, ensuring each element has exactly one "undo"
counterpart.
o Example:—
(𝒁, +),
Inverse of 𝟑 is −𝟑, because 𝟑 + (−𝟑) = 𝟎.
(𝑹*,×),
𝟏 𝟏
Inverse of 𝟓 is , because 𝟓 × = 𝟏.
𝟓 𝟓
▪ Theorem 3:- If the inverse of the inverse of an element is element itself.
o Statement:—
For any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, (𝒂-1)-1 = 𝒂.
o Explanation:—
Taking the inverse operation twice returns the original element, indicating symmetry in the group
structure.
o Proof:—
By the definition of inverse, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂-1 = 𝒆.
Let 𝒃 = 𝒂-1, so 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒆.
Taking the inverse of 𝒃, we get (𝒃-1∗ 𝒃) ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒃-1 ∗ 𝒆.
This simplifies 𝒃-1 = 𝒂, showing (𝒂-1) -1 = 𝒂.
o Importance:—
Demonstrates that inverses are consistent and reversible.
Critical in computations involving multiple inverses.
o Example:—
(𝒁, +),
Inverse of −𝟑 is 𝟑, because – 𝟑� = 𝟑.
(𝑹*,×),
𝟏
Inverse of 𝟓 is 𝟓.
▪ Theorem 4:- The inverse of the product of two elements of a group 𝑮 is the product of the inverse
taken in the reverse order.
o Statement:—
For 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮, the inverse of 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 is 𝒃-1 ∗ 𝒂-1.
 o Explanation:—
This property ensures that inverses distribute over group operations, but in reverse order due to
associativity.
o Proof:—
Consider (𝒂 ∗ 𝐛) ∗(𝒃-1∗ 𝒂-1):
By associativity: 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒃-1) ∗ 𝒂-1 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 ∗ 𝒂-1 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂-1 = 𝒆.
Hence, (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) -1 = 𝒃-1 ∗ 𝒂-1
o Importance:—
Simplifies computations with compound elements in groups, especially in algebraic and geometric
contexts.
o Example:—
(𝑹*,×)
If 𝒂 = 𝟐 and 𝒃 = 𝟑, then:
𝟏
(𝟐 × 𝟑)-1 = .
𝟔
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒃-1 ∗ 𝒂-1 = 𝟑 × 𝟐 = 𝟔
▪ Theorem 5:- Cancellation laws hold good in a group are any element of 𝑮.
o Statement:—
If 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄, then 𝒃 = 𝒄. Similarly, 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒄 ∗ 𝒂 implies 𝒃 = 𝒄.(by using cancellation law).
o Explanation:—
This property ensures that group elements behave predictably, allowing the cancellation of terms from
equations.
o Proof:—
Assume 𝒂 ∗ 𝐛 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒄.
Multiply by 𝒂-1 on the left: 𝒂-1 ∗ (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) = 𝒂 ∗ (𝒂 ∗ 𝒄).
By associativity: (𝒂-1 ∗ 𝒂) ∗ 𝒃 = (𝒂-1 ∗ 𝒂) ∗ 𝒄.
Simplify to 𝒆 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒆 ∗ 𝒄, so 𝒃 = 𝒄.
o Importance:—
Fundamental for solving equations in groups, especially in modular arithmetic and cryptography.
o Example:—
(𝒁, +),
𝟓 + 𝒙 = 𝟓 + 𝒚 implies 𝒙 = 𝒚.
(𝑹*,×),
𝟑 × 𝒙 = 𝟑 × 𝒚 implies 𝒙 = 𝒚.
▪ Theorem 6:- If a 𝑮 is a group with binary operation and if 𝒂 and 𝒃 are any elements of 𝑮, the
linear equations.
o Statement:—
In a group 𝑮 with binary operation ∗, for any 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮, the equation 𝒂 ∗ 𝒙 = 𝒃 and 𝒚 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒃 have
unique solutions 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ 𝑮.
o Explanation:—
This property ensures that group elements can uniquely solve linear equations under the group
operation.
o Proof:—
Multiply both sides by 𝒂-1: 𝒂-1 ∗ (𝒂 ∗ 𝒙) = 𝒂-1 ∗ 𝒃.
By associativity: (𝒂-1 ∗ 𝒂) ∗ 𝒙 = 𝒂-1 ∗ 𝒃.
Simplify to 𝒆 ∗ 𝒙 = 𝒂-1 ∗ 𝒃, so 𝒙 = 𝒂-1 ∗ 𝒃.
o Importance:—
Essential for problem-solving in algebra and physics, especially in systems governed by symmetries.
 o Example:—
(𝒁, +),
Solve 𝟓 + 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐: 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟐 − 𝟓 = 𝟕.
(𝑹*,×),
𝟔
Solve 𝟑 × 𝒙 = 𝟔: 𝒙 = 𝟑 = 𝟐.
▪ Theorem 7:- If corresponding to any element 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, there is an element which satisfies one of
the conditions.
o Statement:—
For any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑮, there exists an element 𝒃 ∈ 𝑮 that satisfies one of the conditions of group axioms.
o Explanation:—
This ensures every element has an "undo" operation, essential for group behaviour.
o Proof:—
This is group axiom, so no additional proof is needed beyond the group definition.
o Importance:—
Provides reversible operations, crucial in error correction and reversible computing.
o Example:—
(𝒁, +),
Inverse of 𝟕 is −𝟕.
(𝑹*,×),
𝟏
Inverse of 𝟒 is 𝟒.

SUB-GROUP & OTHER GROUPS

SUB-GROUP
❖ INTRODUCTION OF SUBGROUP
• A subgroup is a smaller group within a larger group that satisfies the same group axioms under
the operation of the parent group.
• A subgroup is a subset 𝑯 of a group 𝑮 that itself forms a group under same operation defined
in 𝑮.
• It satisfies all four group axioms: 𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 | 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 | 𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 | 𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚.
• If 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮, it is denoted by 𝑯 ≤ 𝑮.
• It helps in understanding the internal structure of a group.
• It often represent symmetries or component of the larger group.
• Example:—
Group 𝒁, +), the set of integers under addition.
Subgroup: 𝟐𝒁 = {… , −𝟒, −𝟐, 𝟎, 𝟐, 𝟒, … }, the set of even integers.
Group: (𝑹*,×), the set of non-zero real numbers under multiplication.
Subgroup: {𝟏, −𝟏}, the set containing 𝟏 and −𝟏.
❖ TYPES OF SUBGROUP
• There are 3 types of subgroup:-
▪ Trivial Subgroup:—
✓ The trivial subgroup is the simplest type of subgroup.
✓ It contains only the identity element 𝒆.
✓ Example:—
In the group (𝒁, +), the trivial subgroup is {𝟎}.
 ▪ Proper Subgroup:—
✓ A proper subgroup 𝑯 of a group 𝑮 is any subgroup that is not equal to the entire group 𝑮 or the
trivial subgroup {𝒆}.
✓ Example:—
In (𝒁, +), the set of even integers 𝟐𝒁 is a proper subgroup.
▪ Normal Subgroup:—
✓ A subgroup 𝑯 of 𝑮 is normal if it is invariant under conjugation, 𝒈𝑯 = 𝑯𝒈 for all 𝒈 ∈ 𝑮.
✓ Normal subgroups are denoted as 𝑯 ⊴ 𝐆.
✓ They are used to construct quotient groups.
✓ Example:—
In (𝒁, +), the set 𝟐𝒁 is a normal subgroup.
❖ PROPERTIES OF SUBGROUP
• There is 2 properties which proves a Subgroup.
▪ Theorem 1:- A subset 𝑯 of a group 𝑮 is a sub-group iff—
(𝒂 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯) => 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯,
𝒂 ∈ 𝑯 => 𝒂-1 ∈ 𝑯
o Explanation:—
The theorem gives a simplified way to check if a subset 𝑯 of a group 𝑮 is a subgroup.
𝑪𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 ensures that combining two elements of 𝑯 using the group operation still produces an
element in 𝑯.
𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 ensures that every element in 𝑯 has its inverse also in 𝑯.
If these two properties hold, the identity element is guaranteed to be in 𝑯, and associativity is
inherited from 𝑮.
o Proof:—
𝑯 ⊆ 𝑮, so associativity of the operation hold in 𝑯.
The identity element 𝒆 of 𝑮 must be in 𝑯:
For any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯, since 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂-1 = 𝒆, and 𝒂-1 ∈ 𝑯, we have 𝒆 ∈ 𝑯.
𝑯 satisfies the group axioms of closure, identity, and inverses, so 𝑯 is a group under 𝑮’s operation
o Importance:—
Theorem 1 is a practical tool for identifying subgroups without directly verifying all group axioms.
o Example:—
Let 𝑮 = (𝒁, +) and 𝑯 = 𝟐𝒁 (set of even integers).
Closure: For 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎 then 𝒃 = 𝟐𝒏, 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝟐(𝒎 + 𝒏) ∈ 𝑯.
Inverse: If 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎, then −𝒂 = −𝟐𝒎 ∈ 𝑯.
Thus, 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮.
▪ Theorem 2:- A subset 𝑯 of a group 𝑮 is a sub-group iff—
(𝒂 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯) => 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃-1 ∈ 𝑯, where 𝒃-1 is the inverse of 𝒃 in 𝑮.
o Explanation:—
This theorem provides an alternative criterion to check if 𝑯 is a subgroup:
Instead of separately verifying closure and inverses, this combines both into a single condition.
If 𝑯 is closed under 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃-1, it automatically contains the identity and is closed under the group
operation.
o Proof:—
Closure: Let 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯.
Since 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃-1 ∈ 𝑯, the operation is closed.
Inverse: For any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑯, choose 𝒃 = 𝒂.
Then 𝒂 ∗ 𝒂-1 = 𝒆 ∈ 𝑯, showing 𝑯 contains the identity.
Inverses: For any 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯, set 𝒂 = 𝒆.
 Then 𝒆 ∗ 𝒃-1 = 𝒃-1 ∈ 𝑯.
o Importance:—
This condition is often easier to verify, especially in groups where inverses are explicitly calculated.
o Example:—
Let 𝑮 = (𝑹*,×) and 𝑯 = {𝟏, −𝟏}.
For 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒂 × 𝒃-1 ∈ 𝑯:
If 𝒂 = 𝟏 and 𝒃 = −𝟏, 𝟏 × (−𝟏)-1= 𝟏 × −𝟏 = −𝟏 ∈ 𝑯.
𝑯 satisfies the condition and is a subgroup of 𝑮.
OTHER GROUPS
❖ ORDER OF AN ELEMENT OF A GROUP
• The order of an element 𝒂 in a group 𝑮 is the smallest positive integer 𝒏 such that:
𝒂n = 𝒆
where 𝒆 is the identity element of the group, and 𝒂n represents the result of applying the
group operation 𝒏 times to 𝒂.
If no such 𝒏 exists, 𝒂 is said to have infinite order.
• The order of an element provides insight into how the element interacts with the group
operation.
• It defines the “cyclic behaviour” of the element 𝒂 within the group.
• For additive groups, the condition 𝒏𝒂 = 𝟎 (where 𝒏 is an integer and 𝟎 is the identity) is
equivalent to the order of 𝒂.
• In a finite group, every element has finite order.
• In an infinite group, some elements may have infinite order.
• It helps in analyzing the structure of the group.
❖ CYCLIC GROUPS & IT’S PROPERTIES
• A cyclic group is a group 𝑮 that can be generated by a single element 𝒈, called a generator.
• Every element of 𝑮 can be written as a power of 𝒈.
• Formally:
𝑮 = {𝒈n | 𝒏 ∈ 𝒁}.
Where 𝒈n represents repeated application of the group operation.
• A cyclic group 𝑮 generated by 𝒈 is denoted by < 𝒈 >.
• A cyclic group 𝑮 generated by 𝒈 is:—
If 𝑮 is finite—
𝑮 = {𝒆, 𝒈, 𝒈2, … , 𝒈n-1}
If 𝑮 is infinite—
𝑮 = {… , 𝒈-2, 𝒈-1, 𝒆, 𝒈, 𝒈2, … }
• Every subgroup of cyclic group is cyclic.
• If 𝑮 is finite of order 𝒏, the order of every subgroup is a divisor of 𝒏.
• The number of generators of a finite cyclic group of order 𝒏 is 𝛟(𝐧), where 𝛟 is Euler’s totient
function.
• Every cyclic group is abelian.
• A cyclic group can have more than one generator.
• If the order of the generator is 𝒏, then the number of distinct element in the group is 𝒏.
 GRAPH THEORY
GRAPH THEORY
❖ INTRODUCTION OF GRAPH THEORY
• Graph theory focuses on studying graphs, which are structures used to model relationships or
connection between objects.
• It provides tools to understand and analyze systems where objects are connected in some way.
• A graph consists of :
✓ Vertices (Nodes): Represent objects or entities.
✓ Edges (Links): Represent connections or relationships between the vertices.
• A graph is mathematical structure and is written as 𝑮 = (𝑽, 𝑬), where 𝑽 is the set of vertices,
and 𝑬 is the set of edges.
• Graphs are used to solve problems like finding the shortest route, analyzing social networks, or
optimizing resource allocation.
• A graph is made up of a finite number of vertices.
• A graph is a set of edges that join two nodes.
• A graph is of two types— Directed graphs and Undirected graphs.

❖ TYPES OF GRAPHS
• There are few types of graphs:—
▪ Simple Graph:—
✓ Definition: A graph where
o Each edge connects two distinct vertices (no loops).
oThere is at most one edge between any pair of vertices (no multiple edges).
✓ Characteristics:
oNo repeated or parallel edges.
oNo self-loops (an edge connecting a vertex to itself).
✓ Example:
oA social network where each connection (friendship) is represented only once.
▪ Multigraph:—
✓ Definition: A graph where
oMultiple edges (parallel edges) can exists between the same pair of vertices.
oSelf-loops may or may not be allowed.
✓ Characteristics:
oAllows for more than one type of relationship or interaction between vertices.
✓ Example:
oA transportation network where multiple bus routes exist between the same two cities.

▪ Complete Graph:—
✓ Definition: A graph where
oEvery vertex is directly connected to every other vertex by a unique edge.
✓ Characteristics:
𝒏(𝒏−𝟏)
oA complete graph with 𝒏 vertices has 𝟐
edges.
oIt is highly dense because all vertices are interconnected.
✓ Example:
oA round-table meeting where every participant directly communicates with everyone else.

▪ Bi-graph:—
✓ Definition: A graph with two orthogonal structures.
oPlace graph: Describes the nesting of entities (e.g., a phone inside a room).
oLink graph: Provides non-local hyperlinks between entities (e.g., allowing phones to communicate
regardless of location).
✓ Characteristics:
oRepresents both local (places) and non-local (link) interactions.
✓ Example:
oA building with rooms containing phones, where the phones can communicate across rooms through
hyperlinks.
❖ DEGREE OF A VERTEX
• The degree of a vertex in a graph is the number of edges incident to (or connected to) that
vertex.
• It indicates how many other vertices are directly connected to the given vertex.
• In undirected graphs, the degree is the total number of edges connected to the vertex,
regardless of direction.
• In directed graphs, the degree is split into two parts:
✓ In-degree: The number of edges directed towards the vertex.
✓ Out-degree: The number of edges directed away from the vertex.
• In an undirected graphs, each edge contributes to the degree of both vertices it connects.
• A vertex with a degree of 0 is called an isolated vertex, means it is not connected to any other
vertex in the graph.
• The formula for degree of a vertex:—
✓ Undirected Graph: 𝒅𝒆𝒈(𝒗) = 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒗
✓ Directed Graph: 𝒅𝒆𝒈(𝒗) = 𝒅𝒆𝒈-(𝒗) + 𝒅𝒆𝒈 +(𝒗)
Where,
Degree of a Vertex = 𝒅𝒆𝒈(𝒗)
In-degree = 𝒅𝒆𝒈-(𝒗)
Out-degree = 𝒅𝒆𝒈 +(𝒗)
❖ OTHERS GRAPHS
• There are few other types of graph:—
▪ Isomorphic Graph:—
✓ Definition:
oTwo graphs 𝑮1 and 𝑮2 are isomorphic if there is one-to-one correspondence between their vertices and
edges such that the adjacency relationships are preserved.
✓ Characteristics:
oThe graphs have the same number of vertices and edges.
oThere is one-to-one mapping between their vertices and edges.
oThe structure and connectivity of the graphs are identical, though the appearance may differ.
✓ Example:
oTwo graphs that look different but have the same structure, like one graph having vertices 𝑨, 𝑩, 𝑪 and
another having 𝑿, 𝒀, 𝒁, where each edge in one correspondence to an edge in the other.

▪ Euler Graph:—
✓ Definition:
oA graph is an Euler graph if it has an Eulerian circuit, meaning there is a closed path that visits every
edge of the graph exactly once and return to the starting vertex.
✓ Characteristics:
oA graph has an Eulerian circuit if and only if every vertex has an even degree.
oThe graph must be connected, meaning there is a path between any two vertices.
 ✓ Example:
oThe graph of a house with edges representing walls and doors. It is possible to walk
through every door exactly once and return to the starting point.

▪ Hamiltonian Graph:—
✓ Definition:
oA graph is Hamiltonian if it has a Hamiltonian cycle, measuring there is a cycle that visits every vertex
exactly once and return to the starting vertex.
✓ Characteristics:
oThe graph contains a Hamiltonian cycle if there exists a path that visits every vertex once and only
once.
oUnlike Eulerian cycles, which cover edges, Hamiltonian cycles cover vertices.
✓ Example:
oA graph with a set of cities, where a Hamiltonian cycle represents a route that visits each city exactly
once and returns to the starting city.

▪ Bipartite Graph:—
✓ Definition:
oA bipartite graph is a graph in which the set of vertices can be divided into two disjoint sets such that
every edge connects a vertex from one set to a vertex from the other set.
✓ Characteristics:
oNo edge connects two vertices within the same set.
oIt is often represented as 𝑮 = (𝑼, 𝑽, 𝑬), where 𝑼 and 𝑽 are disjoint sets, and 𝑬 is the set of edges
between them.
✓ Example:
oA graph representing a job assignment problem where one set of vertices represents candidates and
the other set represents jobs, with edges indicating which candidates are qualified for which jobs.
▪ Complete Bipartite Graph:—
✓ Definition:
oA complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph in which every vertex in one set is connected to every
vertex in the other set.
✓ Characteristics:
oThe graph is denoted as 𝑲m,n, where 𝒎 is the number of vertices in one set and 𝒏 is the number of
vertices in the other set.
oEvery vertex in the first set is connected to every vertex in the second set, and no edges exist between
vertices within the same set.
✓ Example:
oA complete bipartite graph 𝑲3,4, where one set has 3 vertices and the other set has 4 vertices, and each
vertex in the first set is connected to all the vertices in the second set.
 DATA ANALYSIS
DATA AND THEIR REPRESENTATION
❖ INTRODUCTION OF DATA
• Data refers to raw facts, numbers, or information that can be collected, organized and analyzed
to extract meaningful insights.
• Data is often processed using statistical methods or algorithms to aid in decision-making or
predictions.
• It typically focuses on numeric values or measurements used for analysis, manipulation, and
interpretation to find patterns, trends, or relationships.
• The data that are given in its original form often called ungrouped data.
• Grouped data is data that has been organized into classes or intervals to simplify analysis and
interpretation.
❖ STATISTICAL DATA
• Statistical data refers to data that is collected, analyzed, and interpreted using statical methods
to understand patterns, trends, relationships, and distributions.
• It involves numerical and categorical information that is used for quantitative analysis in various
fields.
• It can be classified into two types – Descriptive Data and Inferential Data.
• It helps to draw conclusions, make informed decisions, and predict future outcomes by
identifying patterns and relationship in the data.
❖ VARIABLE
• Variable are elements, features, or factors that can change or take different values in a data set.
• They are used to represent and measures phenomena in mathematical model or study.
• There are two kinds of variables—
▪ Discrete Variables—
✓ These take specific, distinct values, often counted.
✓ They cannot take intermediate values between these points.
✓ Example: The number of students in a class, number of cars in a parking lot.
▪ Continuous Variables—
✓ These can take any value within a range and are often measured.
✓ They can be real numbers.
✓ Example: Height, weight, temperature, and time.
❖ FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
• A frequency distribution is a statistical tool used to organize and summarize a set of data by
showing the number of occurrences (frequency) of different values or ranges (classes) within
the data set.
• It helps in understanding the pattern of data distribution and provides insights into the shape,
spread, and central tendencies of the data.
• It typically consists of: Classes or Intervals , Frequency, Cumulative Frequency, Relative
Frequency.
 • It can be represented in various forms, such as a table, bar chart, or histogram.
❖ GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA
• The graphical representation of data refers to the use of visual tools, such as charts, graphs,
and diagrams, to present data in an organized and easily understandable format.
• It helps in identifying patterns, trends, and relationships in the data at a glance.
• The following types of graphs are used in representing frequency distribution:-
𝑯𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 | 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒈𝒐𝒏 | 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 | 𝑪𝒖𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑶𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
❖ MEAN
• The mean is a measure of central tendency that represents the average value of a data set.
• It is calculated by summing all the data values and dividing by the total number of values.
• There are several methods to find mean of different types of data:—
▪ Mean of Ungrouped Data
o For ungrouped data (raw data without categorization), the mean is calculated as:
∑ 𝒙𝒊
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏(𝒙 ̅) =
𝒏
Where:
𝒙𝒊 = individual data values
𝒏 = number of data values
o Example:
Data: 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖
𝟐+𝟒+𝟔+𝟖
̅=
𝒙 =𝟓
𝟒
▪ Mean of Discrete Data
o For discrete data, where each value has a frequency, the mean is calculated as:
∑ 𝒇𝒊 𝒙𝒊
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏(𝒙 ̅) =
∑ 𝒇𝒊
Where:
𝒇𝒊 = frequency of each data values
𝒙𝒊 = data values
o Example:
Data: 𝒙 = 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔; 𝒇 = 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟐
(𝟐 × 𝟑) + (𝟒 × 𝟓) + (𝟔 × 𝟐) 𝟔 + 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟐
̅=
𝒙 = =𝟑
𝟑+𝟓+𝟐 𝟏𝟎
▪ Mean of Continuous Data
o For continuous data grouped into intervals, the is calculated as:
∑ 𝒇𝒊 𝒎𝒊
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏(𝒙 ̅) =
∑ 𝒇𝒊
Where:
𝒇𝒊 = frequency of each class
𝒎𝒊 = midpoint of each class interval
o Example:
Classes: 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎, 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟒𝟎; 𝒇 = 𝟓, 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟓
Midpoints: 𝟏𝟓, 𝟐𝟓, 𝟑𝟓
(𝟓 × 𝟏𝟓) + (𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐𝟓) + (𝟏𝟓 × 𝟑𝟓) 𝟕𝟓 + 𝟐𝟓𝟎 + 𝟓𝟐𝟓
̅=
𝒙 = = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟑𝟑
𝟓 + 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓 𝟑𝟎
 ▪ Geometric Mean
o The geometric mean is used when values are multiplied, such as growth rates. It is calculated as:
𝟏
𝒏 𝒏
𝑮𝒆𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏(𝑮) = (∏ 𝒙𝒊 )
𝒊=𝟏
Where:
𝒙𝒊 = individual values
𝒏 = number of values
o The geometric mean is particularly useful for comparing rates, proportions, or percentages.
o Example:
Data: 𝟐, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟔
𝟑 𝟑
𝑮 = √𝟐 × 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟔 = √𝟐𝟓𝟔 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟓
❖ MEDIAN
• The median is a measure of central tendency that represents the middle value of a data set
when the data is arranged in ascending or descending order.
• It divides the data into two equal halves.
• If the number of data points is even, the median is the average of the two middle values.
• There are several methods to find median of different types of data:—
▪ Median of Ungrouped Data
o For raw (ungrouped) data, the median is calculated as:
Arrange the data in ascending order.
If the number of data points (𝒏) is:
𝒏+𝟏
Odd: Median = value at position .
𝟐
𝒏 𝒏
Even: Median = average of the value at position 𝟐 and 𝟐 + 𝟏.
o Example:
Data: 𝟑, 𝟕, 𝟐, 𝟖, 𝟓 (arranged: 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕, 𝟖)
𝟓+𝟏
𝒏 = 𝟓 (odd), Median = value at position = 𝟑, so Median = 𝟓.
𝟐
Data: 𝟑, 𝟕, 𝟐, 𝟖 (arranged: 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟕, 𝟖)
𝟑+𝟕
𝒏 = 𝟒 (even), Median = = 𝟓.
𝟐
▪ Median of Discrete Data
o For discrete data with frequencies, the steps are:
Create a cumulative frequency table.
Find the total frequency (𝑵).
𝑵
Locate the class or value where the cumulative frequency equals or exceeds 𝟐 .
o Example:
Data: 𝒙 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒; 𝒇 = 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟐, 𝟒
Cumulative frequency: 𝟑, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟒; 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟒
𝑵
Median = value where cumulative frequency ≥ = 𝟕, so Median = 𝟐.
𝟐
▪ Median of Continuous Data
o For continuous data grouped into intervals, the formula is:
𝑵
−𝑭
𝑴𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 = 𝑳 + ( 𝟐 )×𝒉
𝒇𝒎
Where:
𝑳 = lower boundary of the median class
 𝑵 = total frequency
𝑭 = cumulative frequency before the median class
𝒇𝒎 = frequency of the median class
𝒉 = class width
o Example:
Class: 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎, 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟒𝟎; 𝒇 = 𝟓, 𝟏𝟓, 𝟏𝟎
Cumulative frequency: 𝟓, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟑𝟎; 𝑵 = 𝟑𝟎
𝑵
Median class: 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎( 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓)
𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎, 𝑭 = 𝟓, 𝒇𝒎 = 𝟏𝟓, 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟓−𝟓 𝟏𝟎
𝑴𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐𝟎 + ( × 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟐𝟎 + (𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟐𝟎 + 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟐𝟕
𝟏𝟓
❖ MODE
• The mode is the value or category in a data set that occurs most frequently.
• It is a measure of central tendency and is especially useful for qualitative or categorical data
where other measures (mean, median) may not be applicable.
• There are several methods to find mode of different types of data:—
▪ Mode of Ungrouped Data
o For ungrouped data (raw data):
Identify the value(s) that appear most frequently.
If one value occurs most frequently, it is the mode. If multiple values occur with the same highest
frequency, the data is bimodal or multimodal.
o Example:
Data: 𝟑, 𝟕, 𝟑, 𝟖, 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟓
3 occurs 3 times, 5 occurs 2 times, others occur once.
Mode = 𝟑.
▪ Mode of Discrete Data
o For discrete data with frequencies:
Identify the value with the highest frequency.
This value is the mode.
o Example:
Data:
𝒙 = 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖; 𝒇 = 𝟑, 𝟕, 𝟓, 𝟐
𝒙 = 𝟒 has the highest frequency (𝒇 = 𝟕).
Mode = 𝟒.
If two or more values share the highest frequency, the data is bimodal or multimodal.
▪ Mode of Continuous Data
o For continuous data grouped into intervals, the mode is calculated using the formula:
𝒇𝒎 − 𝒇𝟏
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 𝑳 + ( )×𝒉
(𝒇𝒎 − 𝒇𝟏 ) + (𝒇𝒎 − 𝒇𝟐 )
Where:
𝑳 = lower boundary of the modal class
𝒇𝒎 = frequency of the modal class (highest frequency)
𝒇𝟏 = frequency of the class before the modal class
𝒇𝟐 = frequency of the class after the modal class
𝒉 = class width
o Example:
Class intervals: 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎, 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟒𝟎, 𝟒𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎
Frequencies: 𝟓, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟎
 Modal class = 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟒𝟎(𝒇𝒎 = 𝟏𝟖)
𝑳 = 𝟑𝟎, 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐, 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎
𝟏𝟖 − 𝟏𝟐
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 𝟑𝟎 + ( ) × 𝟏𝟎
(𝟏𝟖 − 𝟏𝟐) + (𝟏𝟖 − 𝟏𝟎)
𝟔 𝟔
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 𝟑𝟎 + ( ) × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎 + ( × 𝟏𝟎) = 𝟑𝟎
𝟔+𝟖 𝟏𝟒
The mode is especially useful for identifying the most common value or range in a data set.
❖ RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEAN, MEDIAN, AND MODE
• The relationship between mean, median, and mode in a data set is best described by the
empirical relationship, particularly for unimodal and moderately skewed distributions.
• The formula is: 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆 ≈ 𝟑 × 𝑴𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏 − 𝟐 × 𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏
• It provides a way to estimate one measure if the others are known.
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
❖ RANGE
• The range is a measure of dispersion in a data set that indicates the spread or variability of the
data.
• It is calculated as the difference between the maximum and minimum values in the data set.
• 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − 𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
• The range provides a quick snapshot of variability but doesn’t give detailed insights into the
distribution of the data.
❖ QUARTILE DEVIATION
• The quartile deviation is a measure of statistical dispersion that indicates the spread of the
middle 50% of a data set.
• It also known as the semi-interquartile range.
• It is defined as half the difference between the third quartile (𝑸𝟑 ) and the first quartile (𝑸𝟏 ).
𝑸𝟑 − 𝑸𝟏
𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝟐
❖ MEAN DEVIATION
• The mean deviation is a measure of dispersion that calculates the average of the absolute
differences between each data point and a central value (mean or median).
• It indicates how much, on average, the data points deviate from the central value.
• It is also known as the average absolute deviation.
• It provides a simpler alternatives to standard deviation but lacks information about data
distribution direction.
• For a data set with values 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐, …, 𝒙𝒏 :
• There are several methods to find mean deviation of different types of data:—
▪ For Ungrouped Data
o Determine the central value 𝑨(mean or median).
o Calculate the absolute deviations: |𝒙𝒊 − 𝑨|.
o Sum all absolute deviations.
o Divide by the total number of data points (𝒏).
▪ For Discrete Data
o Multiply each absolute deviation by its corresponding frequency (𝑓𝑖 ).
o Sum the products of frequencies and deviations.
 o Divide by the total frequency (𝑁 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖 ).
∑ 𝑓𝑖 |𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴|
𝑀𝐷 =
∑ 𝑓𝑖
▪ For Continuous Data
o Find the midpoint (𝑥𝑖 ) of each class.
o Use the midpoint to calculate the deviations from 𝐴.
o Multiply each deviation by the class frequency (𝑓𝑖 ).
o Sum the products and divide by the total frequency (𝑁).
∑ 𝑓𝑖 |𝑥𝑖 − 𝐴|
𝑀𝐷 =
∑ 𝑓𝑖
❖ STANDARD DEVIATION
• The standard deviation is a measure of dispersion that quantifies the amount of variance or
spread in a data set.
• It is the square root of the variance.
• It gives insight into how much the individual data points deviate, on average, from the mean.
• There are several methods to find mean deviation of different types of data:—
▪ For Ungrouped Data
∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑆𝐷 = √
𝑛
Where:
𝑥𝑖 = individual data values.
𝑥̅ = mean of the data set.
𝑛 = total number of data points.
▪ For Discrete Data
∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑆𝐷 = √
∑ 𝑓𝑖
Where:
𝑥𝑖 = data values.
𝑓𝑖 = frequencies of data values.
𝑥̅ = mean of the data set.
▪ For Continuous Data
∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑆𝐷 = √
∑ 𝑓𝑖
Here, 𝑥𝑖 represents the midpoint of the class intervals.

❖ VARIANCE
• Variance is a statistical measure that represents the average squared deviation of each data
point from the mean of the data set.
• It quantifies the degree of spread or dispersion in the data.
• It provides a foundation for understanding data spread, though standard deviation is often
preferred for interpretation due to its unit consistency.
• There are several methods to find mean deviation of different types of data:—
▪ For Ungrouped Data
 2
∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝜎 ) =
𝑛
Where:
𝑥𝑖 = individual data values.
𝑥̅ = mean of the data set.
𝑛 = total number of data points.
▪ For Discrete Data
∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝜎 2 ) =
∑ 𝑓𝑖
Where:
𝑓𝑖 = frequencies of 𝑥𝑖 .
𝑥̅ = mean of the data set.
▪ For Continuous Data
∑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝜎 2 ) =
∑ 𝑓𝑖
Here, 𝑥𝑖 represents the midpoint of the class intervals.
❖ COEFFICIENT OF VARIANCE
• The coefficient of variance (CV) is a statistical measure that expresses the standard deviation of
a data set as a percentage of its mean.
• It is used to compare the relative variability of different data sets, even if they have different
units or magnitudes.
• It provides a meaningful way to interpret and compare variability, especially when the data set
differ in scale or unit of measurement.
• Formula for Coefficient of Variance
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑆𝐷 )
𝐶𝑉 = × 100
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
Where:
SD = Standard deviation of the data.
Mean = Mean of the data.
The result is expressed as a percentage.
SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS
❖ INTRODUCTION TO SKEWNESS
• Skewness is a statistical measure that describes the degree of asymmetry in the distribution of
a data set.
• It indicates whether the data points are more concentrated on one side of the distribution’s
central tendency (Mean, Median, Mode).
• It is a fundamental concept in understanding the nature and behaviour of data distributions.
• It helping analysts interpret and make informed decisions based on data.
• It influences the shape of the probability distribution, indicating the degree and direction of
departure from symmetry.
• Skewness is crucial in finance for understanding the distribution of investment returns and
assessing the risk associated with extreme events.
• There are two types of skewness:—
▪ Interpretation:
o The data is perfectly symmetrical around the mean.
 o Mean = Median = Mode.
o Example: A normal distribution.
▪ Positive Skewness:
o The tail on the right side of the distribution is longer or fatter.
o Majority of data points are concentrated on the left.
o Mean > Median > Mode.
o Example: Income distribution in most populations.
▪ Negative Skewness:
o The tail on the left side of the distribution is longer or fatter.
o Majority of data points are concentrated on the right.
o Mean < Median < Mode.
o Example: Lifespan of certain mechanical devices.
• Formula for find skewness is:–
𝐸 ⌊(𝑋 − 𝜇)3 ⌋
𝛾=
𝜎3
Where:
𝛾 = Skewness
𝐸 = Expected value or mean of the distribution.
𝑋 = Data points.
𝜇 = Mean of the data set.
𝜎 = Standard deviation of the data set.
This formula measures the asymmetry of the probability distribution by using the third
standardized moment.
It captures how the distribution’s shape deviates from being symmetric.
• Some other’s type of skewness
▪ Sample Skewness:
Measures the asymmetry of a sample distribution based on the third standardized moment
▪ Population skewness:
Describes the asymmetry of a population's probability distribution using the expected value of the
third moment.
▪ Excess Kurtosis:
Quantifies how peaked or flat a distribution is compared to the normal distribution (kurtosis = 3).
▪ Leptokurtic Distribution:
A distribution with positive excess kurtosis, characterized by heavy tails and a sharp peak.
▪ Platykurtic Distribution:
A distribution with negative excess kurtosis, featuring light tails and a flatter peak.
▪ L-moment Skewness:
A robust measure of skewness based on linear combinations of order statistics, less sensitive to
outliers.
▪ Distributional Skewness:
Generalized skewness measures derived from the entire shape of the probability distribution.
▪ Quartile Skewness:
(𝑄3 + 𝑄1 − 2𝑄2 )
Measures skewness using quartiles, calculated as ( (𝑄3 − 𝑄1 )
).
▪ Normalized Skewness:
Adjusts skewness to account for sample size, making it comparable across different data sets
❖ KARL PEARSON’S COEFFICIENT OF SKEWNESS
• Karl Pearson’s coefficient of skewness (𝑆𝑘 ) is used to measure the asymmetry of a distribution
and is based on the relationship between the mean, median, and standard deviation.
• If 𝑆𝑘 > 0: The distribution is positively skewed (right-skewed).
• If 𝑆𝑘 < 0: The distribution is negatively skewed (left-skewed).
• If 𝑆𝑘 = 0: The distribution is symmetrical.
• The formula Karl Pearson’s coefficient of skewness
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 − 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
𝑆𝑘 =
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
❖ BOWLEY’S COEFFICIENT OF SKEWNESS
• Bowley’s coefficient of skewness (𝑆𝑏 ) is a measure based on quartiles (𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , 𝑄3 ), which are
less sensitive to extreme values.
• It is especially useful for data with outliers or non-normal distributions.
• If 𝑆𝑏 > 0: The distribution is positively skewed (right-skewed).
• If 𝑆𝑏 < 0: The distribution is negatively skewed (left-skewed).
• If 𝑆𝑏 = 0: The distribution is symmetrical.
• The formula Karl Pearson’s coefficient of skewness
𝑄3 + 𝑄1 − 2𝑄2
𝑆𝑏 =
𝑄3 − 𝑄1
❖ INTRODUCTION TO KURTOSIS
• Kurtosis is a statistical measure that describes the tailedness or sharpness of the peak of a
probability distribution compared to a normal distribution.
• It quantifies how much data is concentrated in the tails and around the peak, helping to
interpret the distribution’s shape and variability.
• Some key points :
▪ Types of Kurtosis:
o Mesokurtic:
Distribution with kurtosis = 3.
Moderate tails and a standard peak.
o Leptokurtic:
Distribution with kurtosis > 3.
Sharp peak and heavy tails.
o Platykurtic:
Distribution with kurtosis < 3 .
Flat peak and light tails.
▪ Formula for Excess Kurtosis:
o Excess Kurtosis is the kurtosis value relative to a normal distribution:
𝐸[(𝑋 − 𝜇)4 ]
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐾𝑢𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑠 = −3
𝜎4
Here, 𝜇 is the mean, 𝜎 is the standard deviation, and 𝑋 represents the data.
▪ Interpretation:
o High kurtosis indicates the presence of extreme values in the tails.
o Low kurtosis implies fewer extreme values.
▪ Applications:
o Finance: Assessing risk and outliers in stock returns.
o Data Analysis: Understanding distribution shape and variability.