Health for individuals and communities

How do we understand and measure Australia’s health?

Compare meanings of health, using various sources, including the World Health Organization’s (WHO)
definition, and explain why people give different meanings to health
• The concept of health is diverse and means different things to different people.
• In the past the term ‘health’ was closely associated with how well a person’s body functioned
physically, and in particular with their capacity and ability to perform physical activity.
• 1984 WHO: ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity’.
• 1986 WHO: ‘a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept
emphasising social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities.’
• 1986 Australian Better Health Commission: 'To the community, good health means a higher standard
of living, greater participation in making and implementing community health policies and reducing
health costs.'

Explain the dynamic nature of health by exploring the interactions between the dimensions of health, the
concept of good health, the health continuum, how health changes over time, and how an individual’s
circumstances affect their health
• Health can be classified as dynamic, because it is constantly changing.

Dimensions of Health:
• A balance between all five dimensions is essential to produce general wellbeing and satisfaction

Dimension Definition Dynamic nature Positive interactions Negative interactions

Physical Efficient Can change due to Social: recovering from Social: illness/injury →
functioning of short-term factors illness and spending missing school/events
the body and (injury, illness) or long- time with friends Mental/emotional: life-
its systems. term conditions Mental/emotional: threatening illness
Can carry out (cancer, Alzheimer’s, good health → affects mental health
everyday paralysis) happiness
activities.
Social Interactions Changes in Mental/emotional: Mental/emotional: loss
with other friends/family graduating with friends of connection → mental
people and the networks, social → satisfaction illness
social and environments, lifestyle Spiritual: forming Physical: breakup →
communicatio choices, connections → sense lower motivation for
n skills we socioeconomic of belonging activity
display. factors, norms
Mental State of mental Influenced by Social: volunteering → Social:
well-being responsibilities, stress, meaningful depression/anxiety →
enabling brain changes, connections withdrawal
coping, physical activity, or Physical: exercise → Physical: brain changes
learning, work, loss of loved ones endorphins → better → mental health issues
and mental health Spiritual: loss → impact
contribution Spiritual: achieving on faith
(WHO) goals → satisfaction
Emotional Coping with Dynamic due to Social: volunteering → Social: poor emotional
thoughts and fluctuating emotions purposeful health → conflicts
feelings; over time connections Spiritual: loss of loved
resilience and Physical: exercise → one → impact on faith
recognition of improved emotional
emotions health (endorphins +
serotonin)
 Spiritual Sense of Influenced by Social: cultural group Social: long work hours
purpose and downtime, work hours, engagement → → less family time
meaning; or new social groups connection Mental/emotional:
connectedness Emotional: beliefs → neglect →
to community fulfillment, gratitude dissatisfaction

Health Continuum

• Health is subjective
• As we age our definition and meaning of health changes
• Some factors that influence our understanding of health:
• socioeconomic status
• geographic location
• cultural background
• gender
• age
• level of education
• community values and expectations.

Discuss the use of epidemiology, mortality, infant mortality, morbidity, incidence and prevalence to explain the
health status of Australians using tables and graphs from Australia’s Health and other health reports
Epidemiology
• The study of patterns, causes and effects of health-related states or events (including disease) in a
population, through the collection and analysis of data; the goal is to prevent and control health
problems by identifying and understanding the causes.
• Health status
• Patterns of health and disease
• Analyse how health services and
facilities are distributed
• Epidemiology covers prevalence, incidence,
distribution, and causes
• Can compare populations, allocate
resources, evaluate behaviours and
strategies, and promote behaviours.
• Limitations:
• Does not show the variations among
a population
• Not all aspects of quality of life
• Degree and impact of illness
• Does not show why inequalities exist
• Varying reliability

Mortality
• Number of death in a group of people over a specific time
period (usually a year).
• Objective and easily determined
• Can be used to compare different populations
• Identify trends of illnesses
Infant Mortality
• Number of infant deaths in the first year of life per
1000 live births.
• Neonatal (first 28 days)
• Post-neonatal (remainder of the first year)
• Considered the most important indicator of the
health status of a nation
• Predict adult life expectancy

Morbidity
• Refers to the ill health of an individual in a population or
group
• Hospital use
• Doctor visits
• Medicare statistics
• Health surveys and reports
• Disability and handicap
• Illness, disease, and injury all reduce quality of life
• Broaders perspective on the nation’s health than mortality
• Can also be used for early intervention techniques

Incidence and Prevalence

• Incidence: number of new cases occurring during a given time period
• Prevalence: number or proportion of cases in a population at a given time
• Measures used to present morbidity data
• Incidence is used for identifying which conditions are increasing in diagnosis
• Allows better allocation of funding

Investigate the role of social justice principles, participation, equity, access and rights, in
promoting an individual and community’s health status
• Aim to ensure that individuals and communities who are identified as being the most
disadvantaged are provided with sufficient resources and support to empower them
to improve their health.
• More resources being allocated to narrow the gap.

Social Definition How does it promote Example Implications

justice health?
principle
Participation Enables Promotes education Formation of the National Better
individuals to and ensures Aboriginal Community outcomes in
participate in individuals are Controlled Health management
decisions which equipped with the Organisation (NACCHO) of chronic
affect their lives. skills and health aimed to increase the diseases
Self- literacy needed to participation of Indigenous compared to
determination. peoples in decisions regarding
 make informed their own health -> culturally general
decisions. safe healthcare spaces practices.
Equity The fair Allows more Abstudy and Austudy are More
distribution of resources to be government payments to help engagement
resources based allocated to areas ensure that Aboriginal and in health
on the needs of with extreme Torres Strait Islander people services from
individuals and disadvantage, ensures and people with lower diverse
populations, with all citizens have incomes are able to meet people. Even
the aim of access to the same tertiary education needs. playing field.
achieving opportunities for
equitable achieving optimal PBS ensures life-saving
outcomes. health. medications are affordable for
individuals who may need
them.
Access Ensures all people Reduces the barriers Mobile health services such More likely to
can access that individuals face as BreastScreen van and the receive the
treatment and to accessing health Hear our Heart Ear Bus treatment
services services such as: Project they need.
regardless of their • Gender Improved
age, gender or • Language Royal Flying Doctor Services preventative
ethnicity • Geographic health people in rural and care. Greater
location remote locations trust in
• Gender participation
• Ethnicity in health care
Rights Civil, political, It allows everyone to Disability Discrimination Act Ensures all
economic, be protected and safe, (1992) protects Australians rights are
cultural, and preventing from unfair treatment by protected,
social rights discrimination, making sure they have this helps
• Legislation thereby leading to reasonable accommodations empower
• Public better health made within schools and individuals to
awareness outcomes workplaces to provide them seek
• Education will equal access and healthcare
• Advocacy opportunities services
because they
believe they
won't be
discriminated
against

Discuss the range of determinants (broad features of society, environmental factors, socioeconomic
characteristics, health behaviours and biomedical factors), that influence the health and wellbeing of
Australians
Including:
• how do the determinants interact to affect the health of population groups?
• what are the sociological causes of risky health behaviours?
• where do inequities exist and what can we do about them?

Health Behaviours
• The health of an individual can be influenced by their beliefs and actions. Can be classified as
protective and risk factors:
Action Trend Influencing future health Inequalities
E-Cigarette Pos: Low overall use among 18–24s Pos: Nicotine addiction, Aboriginal and Torres
use Neg: Use rising (2016–2022), links to carcinogens, long-term Strait Islander people
future smoking respiratory problems, ↑ health are 3 x more likely to
costs, ↓ life expectancy smoke and vape.
Dietary Pos: 72% of children eat Pos: Reduced chronic illness, People in rural and
behaviour recommended fruit; adults meet ↑ life expectancy, ↓ health regional areas are less
protein needs cost likely to meet dietary
Neg: Very low veg intake (4.4% Neg: Opposite if poor diet guidelines.
children, 96% men, 87% women don’t
meet guidelines)
Alcohol Pos: More youth abstaining Pos: Later drinking age lowers People with low
consumption Neg: Alcohol widespread in culture, addiction risk socioeconomic
binge drinking common; 31% (14+) Neg: Risks: heart/liver disease, background are more
drink at risky levels (2022–23) cancers, diabetes, depression, likely to drink.
addiction, ↓ life expectancy

Features of Society
• The broad features of society include culture, affluence, social cohesion, social inclusion, political
structures, media and language. It is becoming better understood that these broader determinants of
health, which are the conditions individuals are born into and then grow and live within, shape future
health possibilities.

Determinant What it is Example Future Health

Culture Beliefs/practices Mediterranean diet = Respecting culture + education →
shaping diet, remedies, lower CVD; Australian healthier decisions, ↓ CVD &
attitudes diet = ↑ processed lifestyle disease
food risks
Affluence Access to resources via High income → private ↑ Affluence = better health
income healthcare, shorter outcomes; inequality = poorer
wait times outcomes & stress
Political Systems impacting Medicare (universal Policies = improved access &
structures healthcare and care), PBS (subsidised outcomes; inequality in education =
wellbeing meds), Fee-Free TAFE poorer opportunities
initiative

Environmental Factors
• Environmental factors consider the built and natural environments
that have an impact on health; for example, geographic location,
quality of air and water, safe workplaces, community safety and
access to physical resources within a community.
• 71% of Australians live in major cities

Determinant What it is Example Future Health

 Geographic Where someone lives Rural Australians = ↓ Access to healthcare, ↑ risk
location and its impact on health poorer health, higher behaviours → chronic illness, ↓ life
illness & injury rates expectancy
Safe workplaces Environmental & Agriculture → heat, Ongoing exposure = chronic injuries,
physical conditions at machinery risks; long stress, financial hardship, ↓ quality
work rural commutes of life
Quality of air and Purity & safety of City pollution; Poor air = asthma, COPD; poor
water air/water fluoridated water in water = tooth decay, illness;
80% of urban areas vs contamination = poisoning & long-
30–40% regional term health impacts

Socioeconomic Characteristics
• Socioeconomic factors include educational attainment, employment status, cultural background,
disability, social networks, social expectations and attitudes, cultural traditions and the media. A
combination of all these factors is referred to as an individual or group’s socioeconomic status.
Generally, people in lower socioeconomic groups are at greater risk of poor health, have higher rates of
illness and death, and have a lower life expectancy than people from higher socioeconomic groups. The
higher a person’s socioeconomic status, the healthier they tend to be
• Social gradient of health

Determinant What it is Example Future Health

Educational Level of schooling & Well-resourced school ↑ Education = better jobs, income,
attainment qualifications → career, with digital tech health literacy, ↓ mortality
income, health literacy
Employment Occupation, job type, Full-time vs casual vs Pos: Employment = identity, social
status unemployment unemployed networks, better health
Neg: Unemployment = stress, poor
mental health, higher chronic illness
& mortality
Disability Barriers to health, Lower income with Pos: Support → independence,
education, work access disability = financial wellbeing
barriers to care Neg: Lack of access → poorer
health, widened inequalities

Biomedical Factors
• Biomedical factors are bodily states that have an impact on a person’s risk of disease. They include
genetics, blood pressure, blood glucose levels, cholesterol levels and physical impairment. Through a
range of lifestyle behaviours, individuals can control the level to which these factors affect their health.
However, an individual’s heredity can predispose them to certain conditions such as hypertension,
diabetes or physical impairments over which they have limited control.

Determinant What it is Example Future Health

Genetics Inherited biological Family history (heart ↑ Risk of chronic disease, may ↓ life
traits & risks disease, cancer, expectancy; lifestyle/environment
asthma), genetic can reduce impact
disorders
Blood pressure Force of blood in 1 in 3 adults have high ↑ Risk of CVD, organ damage;
arteries BP manageable with lifestyle & meds
Blood glucose Regulation of Normal fasting: 4.0– ↑ Type 2 diabetes (fastest growing
levels glucose/insulin 5.5 mmol/L; impaired chronic disease), ↑ risk of CVD,
regulation = diabetes stroke, kidney disease, premature
death
What are young people’s meanings of health?
Explore across generations aspects of young people’s lives that make them similar and different to the young
people of previous generations
Developmental Stages:
Impact Example
Developmentally, just like in generations before, Housing Affordability in the cost-of-living crisis:
adolescence is characterised by rapid physical • Mental health: feelings of stress,
growth and is accompanied by emotional, mental disempowerment, anxious, depression,
and social maturation. decreases sense of security and identity and
• Young people today have a higher rate of therefore self-esteem
education. • Physical health: diet, can't afford gym
• According to the Workplace and Gender memberships or organised sport
Equality Agency (WGEA 2022), women make • Social health: prioritising work and therefore
up almost 50 per cent of the total number of less time spent socialising, can't afford to
employees in the workplace. This is social, second job
significant because the ABS reported in 1966 • Spiritual health: sense of purpose, is what
that women made up only 30 per cent of the they are doing worth it
workforce. • Collectively: increase rates of poverty and
• Young people are delaying marriage and homelessness in the generation
taking longer to move out of the parental
home.
• Home ownership has decreased.

Influences on Health
Influence What is it Evidence Impact
Family Family still valued AIHW say family is important to Positive: A decrease in the
• What a family looks adolescents number of parents who
like might be smoke cigarettes
different positively influences their
• The cross- children to also not begin
generational smoking.
dynamic of a family
provides young Neg: A risk factor in the
people with a variety rise of domestic and
of perspectives family violence is having a
about life issues history of abuse, which
• Increase empathy may often be from the
and understanding family unit.
Peers Importance of peers remains 80% of young people telling Positive: Can aid in
consistent across Mission Australia in 2023 that positive influences such as
generations however this they identified friendship as their when peers support each
looks different most valuable source of support other to not smoke,
(Youth Survey Report, 2023) misuse drugs, or
demonstrating positive
upstander behaviour

Negative: Peers can

encourage each other to
take risks on the road
Culture Continues to have a strong Aboriginal and Torres Strait Positive: Aligning to
influence Islander culture has been existing certain youth subcultures
• Youth subculture for over 60 000 years can enhance a sense of
• Expressing belonging and identity
themselves
• Place of belonging
 • Confirm their
identity
Maintaining self-esteem and
self-confidence

Technology
Influence Changes over time Evidence Impact
Work • Rise of AI, 75% fastest-growing Positive: Flexibility,
automation, remote occupations require STEM (FYA). reduced sick leave,
work platforms higher salaries improve
(Zoom, Teams). Work-from-home reduces sick access to healthcare.
• Growth in days.
independent Negative: Isolation →
contracting, poor mental health,
influencer jobs, increased screen time →
STEM demand. eye issues, blurred work-
• Shift in values → life boundaries.
work-life balance >
salary.

Leisure • Transition: Forbes: tech aids injury Positive: Injury

CDs/iPods → prevention, training efficiency. prevention, personalised
AirPods, Bluetooth training, mental growth
• Books: physical → Giacomo Bruno: self-help = via reading.
e-books (1B+ popular e-book genre.
readers globally). Negative: Sedentary
• Growth of fitness & lifestyle → obesity, poor
sports tech (heart sleep from screen use,
rate, hydration, social isolation, blurred
muscle activity boundaries between
tracking). work/leisure.
• Shift: outdoor play
→ indoor, screen-
based
entertainment.
Communication • Rise of mobiles, ABS (2023-24): 26.2% mental Positive: Stronger
apps, social media, health visits via telehealth. connectivity, reduced
emojis, isolation, fast access to
abbreviations. 61% young people use apps for health info, telehealth,
• Online platforms calls/messages vs 33% older mental health resources,
replace face-to- groups. proactive health apps.
face
communication. Negative: Mental health
• Telehealth & digital issues (anxiety,
health access. depression), privacy
risks, reduced physical
activity, overuse of
screens.
What are the opportunities for improving and promoting young people’s health?
Examine how young people advocate for their own and others’ health using various sources considering past,
current and future advocacy and the role of individuals within their communities
• In the past, advocacy was often done for young people; today, they can advocate for themselves.
• Advocacy = speaking or acting to support a cause or ensure needs and interests are addressed.
• Through advocacy, young people can:
• Be encouraged to participate in decision-making.
• Address inequalities affecting themselves and others.
• Contribute to improving services in health and community settings.

Initiative Improve health Example

SRC • Provides opportunities to represent student A school SRC proposes adding
needs. shaded seating areas to improve
• Organises events that support physical & student wellbeing at lunch.
social health.
• Meets with teachers/principals to propose
ideas (e.g., uniforms, playground access,
fundraising).
Young Australian • Recognises young people who create Awer Mabil (2022) – co-founded
of the Year positive change. Barefoot to Boots to support
• Builds awareness of health, education & refugees by providing football
equality issues. gear, promoting development, and
partnering with UNICEF and
UNHCR.
Lions Youth of • Recognises 15–19 y/o for leadership, service Past participants organised blood
the Year & public speaking. donation drives, environmental
• Builds communication and community clean-ups, and fundraisers for
awareness. local charities.
Future Advocacy • Social media enables global Greta Thunberg – mobilised global
communication & demonstrations. climate action through social
• Expanding focus areas: mental health, media.
Indigenous equity, disability rights, housing
affordability.

Discuss how organisations and communities advocate for the health of young people
Including:
• the role government and non-government organisations and communities have in promoting the health
of young people, including Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander young people
• the impact of organisations and communities on the health of young people

• Health promotion is a shared responsibility → requires collaboration between individuals, organisations,

and communities.
• Effective health promotion:
o Gives young people a voice in decision-making.
o Involves policies, strategies, and initiatives that reflect youth needs.
o Operates at local, state, and federal levels.

Government Organisations
Role in Health Advocacy:
• Policy Development & Implementation – federal, state, and local health departments create health
policies.
• Funding & Resource Allocation – finance health services, research, initiatives.
• Data Collection & Analysis – track health trends, disparities, evaluate programs.
 • Partnerships & Collaboration – work with NGOs, schools, and healthcare providers.

Example: Office of the Advocate for Children and Young People (ACYP)
• Reports directly to NSW Parliament.
• Ensures rights and voices of young people are protected.
• Activities:
o Consults with >44,000 children and young people (face-to-face & surveys).
o Topics: mental health, education, violence, safety.
o Provides findings/recommendations to Parliament → informs public policy.
• Impact: Young people influence health-related decisions that directly affect them.

Non-Government Organisations
Non-government organisations (NGOs) play a vital role in advocating for health by filling service gaps, raising
awareness, and influencing policy. They work independently of the government but often collaborate with it to
promote health and well-being.

Example: NACCHO (National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation)

• National body for ACCHOs
• Supported culturally appropriate healthcare
• Promotes research for evidence-based practice
• Involves Elders and community
• Impact:
o Provided 3.1m care episodes in 2022–23 across 143 ACCHOs.
o 17% increase in new patients.

Example: Headspace
• National Youth Mental Health Foundation.
• Provides early intervention services for 12–25-year-olds.
• Offers support for mental health, physical health, alcohol and other drugs, and work/study.
• Promotes awareness campaigns to reduce stigma around mental health.
• Impact:
o Over 3 million Australians have accessed Headspace services since its establishment.
o 100+ Headspace centres across Australia, plus online and phone support.

Communities
Role in Health Advocacy:
• Promote health equity and empower individuals.
• Community participation → stronger health services.
• Increase health literacy and action.

Example: Schools
• Central to communities.
• Use a whole-school approach for health promotion.

Policy What does it do? Impact

Mandatory K-10 Promotes lifelong physical Positive impact on physical, mental, and social health
PDHPE Syllabus activity and healthy habits. (exercise, teamwork, resilience). Effectiveness
depends on teaching quality & engagement.
NSW Health Makes healthy food the easy Directly impacts nutrition & obesity rates. Success
Canteen Strategy choice at school. depends on affordability & uptake of healthy options.

Explain the nature of health promotion in Australia

Health promotion is the process of helping people to have more control over and improve their health
 • Health promotion has gradually evolved to encompass a more holistic approach which aims to improve
the individual’s health, considers the determinants of health, and in some cases attempts to negate the
effects of living with chronic disease and disability.

Including:
how have various approaches to health influenced health promotion?
how does health promotion in partnerships with communities strengthen the health of individuals and
communities across a range of cultural groups including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Approaches to Health

• Health is holistic → physical, emotional, cultural, social, spiritual, and community wellbeing.
• Health = whole-of-life view, not just absence of illness.
• Connection to land, culture, family, spirituality is central.
• Effective health promotion for Aboriginal peoples requires cultural safety, equity, and self-
determination.

Approach Characteristics and Features Implications for Health

Holistic Attitude • NACCHO 1979 definition: health = Disruption to balance → reduced
physical, emotional, cultural, social health and wellbeing.
wellbeing of community.
• Balance between physical, cultural, and
spiritual health.
• Land is central.
Community- • Uses multi-dimensional approach. Ensures care aligns with cultural
Based Practices • Strengths of community, family, and beliefs/customs → improves
individuals. engagement & outcomes.
• ACCHOs: culturally safe counselling,
support, reunification.
Practising Culture • Connection to ancestors, land, waters, Health services must provide
sky. culturally safe environments free
• Shape’s identity, brings generations from racism/discrimination.
together.
• Improves both individual & community
wellbeing.
Cultural Healers • Traditional healers Increases trust and comfort →
• Holistic approach: combines traditional + better treatment uptake &
western methods. improved outcomes.
• Long history of care.
 Domain Risk Factors Protective Factors Implications
Body Chronic disease, poor Nutritious food, exercise, Improves physical wellbeing through
diet, smoking. culturally safe services. healthy practices.
Mind and Racism, unemployment, Education, confidence, Strong mind = better self-
emotions trauma, disability. strong identity, agency. management & healthcare
engagement.
Family and Violence, neglect, Stable, supportive families, Kinship = secure attachments and
kinship absence, OOHC. income, family-focused resilience.
services.
Community Lateral violence, feuds, Support networks, Builds pride, belonging, and stronger
isolation, lack of community-controlled identity.
services. services, self-governance.
Culture Language loss, unsafe Cultural practices, events, Strengthens identity, continuity with
services, loss of elders. institutions, education. past.
Country Displacement, restricted Time on Country, land Underpins belonging, identity, and
access, lack of land rights. recognition, cultural law/custom.
practices.
Spirituality Disconnection, loss of Ceremonies, cultural Strong spirituality = resilience,
and stories/role models. expression (art, dance, belonging, mental health.
ancestors music), traditional practices.

Other approaches to health in Australia

Approach Characteristics Examples Advantages Limitations
Biomedical Focus on MRIs, CT scans, Increased life Ignores
physical/biological ultrasounds, expectancy. social/emotional
disease. Diagnosis, keyhole surgery, Effective treatment & factors.
treatment, cure. vaccinations. recovery. Expensive.
Reactive. Advanced screening Reactive, not
tech preventative.
Overreliance on
system.
Sociocultural Addresses broader Oral Health 2020, Empowers Less effective for
determinants Girls Make Your communities. acute illness.
(social, cultural, Move, Game on Preventative = cost Resource intensive.
environmental, Mole, National effective. Complex to
economic). Bowel Cancer Reduces disease implement.
Prevention focus. Screening Program. burden.
Collaboration
between gov + NGOs.
Salutogenic Focuses on Hospitals, aged Improves coping in Harder to measure
wellbeing over care, Ronald illness. outcomes.
disease. Health = McDonald Houses, Encourages proactive May be secondary to
continuum. Coping prevention healthy behaviours. urgent medical needs.
& resilience. campaigns. Builds resilience,
identity, meaning.
Ecological Health shaped by Maranguka Justice Holistic, multi- Requires systemic
individual + Reinvestment, layered. change.
environment (social drivers licence Targets root causes. Barriers in
determinants). initiative in Bourke. Promotes equity & disadvantaged areas
Focus on interplay. community action. (e.g. low SES,
transport, stigma).

what global health policies have impacted health promotion in Australia?

UNESCO
• United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation
 Aspect Description Examples Impact
Education Promotes education as a tool FRESH framework - Focusing Helps schools address
for health, teaching about Resources on Effective nutrition, hygiene,
healthy lifestyles, School Health mental health,
environment, disease resilience, and stress
prevention. management.
Environmental Protects environment through World Heritage Convention Shapes Australian
Sustainability sustainable development and (e.g., Great Barrier Reef, environmental policies;
conservation. Kakadu, Shark Bay). raises awareness about
issues like climate
change’s effect on reefs.
Medical Ethics Develops ethical standards in Universal Declaration on Guides Australian
genetics and biomedicine. Bioethics and Human Rights policies on medical
(2005) ethics, research
standards, and genetic
data protection.

WHO
• World Health Organisation
• Its primary role is to direct and coordinate international health efforts, promote health and well-being,
and respond to health emergencies globally.

Responsibility Description Examples Impact

Setting global Identifies major global health Expanded Programme on Influenced Australia’s
health issues and sets strategies. Immunisation for Smallpox vaccination policies and
priorities (1974) anti-smoking laws (plain
packaging).
Coordination Brings together governments, Global Action Plan for Promotes active
and NGOs, schools, sports, Physical Activity (2018–2030). societies and
collaboration planners. environments in
Australia (e.g.,
school/community
initiatives).
Health Provides global frameworks. Ottawa Charter (1986). Foundation of Australia’s
promotion health promotion
frameworks strategies, shaping
policies and community
programs.

how has the Ottawa Charter been used to improve Australia’s health?
• Reduces risk factors
• Strengthens protective behaviours
• Makes health a shared responsibility between governments, communities, and individuals.
• Ottawa Charter is still regarded as essential to any effective health promotion worldwide.
• Developed in 1986

Action Area What is it Example

Building healthy public Laws, regulations, taxation, and policies that Seatbelt and helmet laws
policy protect health.
Creating supportive Makes natural/built environments conducive Smoke-free workplaces
environments to health.
Strengthening Collective community-based health Community fun runs,
community action improvement.
Reorienting health Moves away from purely medical treatment to B-Street Smart.
services prevention and holistic care.
 Developing personal Equips people with life skills and knowledge CPR/First Aid training
skills for healthier choices.

Examine how the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are being used to improve health
Including:
what are the SDGs?
• 2030 Agenda: 17 SDGs adopted by all UN members (including Australia) in 2015.
• Goals aim to end poverty, fight inequality, tackle climate change, improve health, education, jobs, and
social protection.
• SDGs guide programs, projects, and partnerships globally and locally.
• Collaboration across sectors ensures effective health promotion and improved outcomes for
communities.
Area Key Features
People • End poverty and hunger in all forms
• Ensure all humans can fulfil their potential with dignity, equality, and in a
healthy environment
Planet • Protect the planet from degradation
• Encourage sustainable consumption and production
• Sustainably manage natural resources
• Take urgent action on climate change
Prosperity • Ensure all humans enjoy a prosperous and fulfilling life
• Support economic, social, and technological progress in harmony with nature
Peace • Foster peaceful, fair, and inclusive societies
• Ensure no fear or violence
• Recognise that sustainable development needs peace and vice versa
Partnerships • Implement the agenda through strong global partnerships
• Focus on the poorest and most vulnerable
• Involve all countries, stakeholders, and people

how has the World Health Organization applied a health lens to the SDGs?
Approach Description Example/Application
Health as a core Recognises health as a • SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being
goal fundamental human • Better healthcare access improves workplace
right and a prerequisite productivity (SDG 8) and reduces poverty (SDG 1).
for sustainable
development.
Interconnectedness Health is linked to • Education (SDG 4): PDHPE lessons teach students
of the SDGs education, poverty about cardiovascular health.
reduction, gender • Clean water (SDG 6) improves hygiene and reduces
equality, clean water, disease.
and sanitation, which all
affect health outcomes.
Shared Encourages multiple Coronary heart disease example:
responsibility sectors to share • Healthcare: early detection, treatment, and
responsibility for health management
outcomes. • Education: risk factor awareness
• Workplaces: wellness programs and stress
reduction
• Urban planning: parks, walking paths, bike lanes
• Global partnerships: research and pharmaceutical
collaboration

how are the SDGs being used in Australia?

• SDGs are applied by government, businesses, civil society, communities, families, and individuals.
 • They provide a framework for identifying problems and working in partnerships to drive health
improvements.

Initiative SDGs What it doe How it improves health

5000 Meals 3, 4 Provides education, Improves nutrition for
skills classes, and meal vulnerable populations,
production for the teaches culinary skills,
homeless (“Prepare, promotes sustainable
Produce, Provide”) food practices, and
fosters community
wellbeing
We’re All in This Together 3, 4, 11 Partnerships to support Enhances mental,
the Illawarra community, physical, and nutritional
including financial aid, health; reduces stress
online wellbeing and food insecurity;
programs, food drives, strengthens social
and community building connections
activities

how could the SDGs be used to promote the health of young people in a local community?
SDG Example Promotes health
3 – Good Health and NDIS Supports young people with disabilities to live
Wellbeing independently, access equipment and
therapies, participate in community, and
improve social and emotional wellbeing
4 – Quality Education Inclusive, equitable education Increases self-worth, attendance, confidence,
(pre-school to tertiary) & and long-term health literacy; improves
Positive Behaviour for Learning employability and social development
(PBL)
11 – Sustainable Cities Inclusive, safe, resilient urban Encourages physical activity, reduces
and communities planning (green spaces, pollution, fosters social interaction, and
footpaths, cycling lanes) improves physical, social, and emotional
health
The Body and Mind in Motion
How do the systems of the body influence and respond to movement?
Explain the interrelationship between the skeletal and muscular systems and movement
Including:
structure and function
Anatomical Terminology
Term Definition Example
Superior Up Head is superior to neck
Inferior Down Metatarsals are inferior to the patella
Anterior Front Patella is on the anterior side of the
leg.
Posterior Back Shoulder blades are located on the
posterior side of the body
Medial Middle The ulna is medial to the radius
Lateral Outside The radius is lateral to the ulna
Proximal Close The shoulder joint is proximal to the
elbow joint
Distal Far The knee joint is distal to the hip joint
Frontal Plane Anterior and N/A
posterior halves
Sagittal Plane Left and right N/A
halves
Transverse Plane Superior and N/A
inferior halves

Functions of the Skeletal System

Function Description
1. Movement Working with muscular system
2. Support Point of attachment
3. Protection Mechanical protection
4. Storage Minerals and nutrients
5. Blood cell production In bone marrow

Structure of the Skeletal System

Parts of the Skeleton:
Part Description Example
Axial Protection of vital Skull, ribs, vertebral
organs column
Appendicular Movement Arms, legs, pelvis

Types of Bones:
Type Description Function Example
Long Longer than wide Movement Femur
Short Box shaped Fine motor skills Carpals
 Irregular Broad surface Support/other Vertebrae
Flat Do not fit other Protection Scapular
categories
Sesamoid Encased in tendon Relieve tension Patella

Types of Joints:
Type Description Example
Fibrous No movement Skull
(immoveable)
Cartilaginous Some Vertebral
(slightly movement collum
moveable)
Synovial Maximum Knee joint
(freely movement
moveable)

Structure of Joints:
Structure Description Example
Ligaments • Bone to bone ACL
• Stability by preventing (femur to
excessive movement tibia)
• Degree and direction of
movement
• Fibrous bands
Tendons • Muscle to bone Patella
• Strengthen joint tendon
• Inelastic
• Joint capsule closed
Synovial fluid • Viscous fluid N/A
• Lubricant
• Cushion between
articulating surfaces
Articular • Smooth and shiny N/A
Cartilage • Covers articulating
surfaces
• Prevents friction

Function of Muscular System

• Movement
• Support
• Protect
• Temperature
• Blood circulation and breathing

Structure of Muscular System

Types of Muscle Tissue
Type Definition Appearance
Cardiac Involuntary Striped
Heart
Visceral (smooth) Involuntary Smooth, rhythmical
Walls of small intestine
Skeletal Attached to bones Striped
Movement
Voluntary
Origin and Insertion
• Origin: Stationary bone, proximal
• Insertion: moveable bone, distal

major bones and synovial joints

Major Bones
Vertebral Column
• 24 moveable
o 7 Cervical
o 12 Thoracic
o 5 Lumbar
• 2 sections of immoveable
o 5 sacrum
o 4 Coccyx

Upper Body
Bone Type Role in Movement Example
Clavicle Long Elevation of shoulders Butterfly in swimming
Scapula Flat Range of motion in the Backstroke in
shoulder. swimming
Circumduction
Humerus Long Rotating within shoulder Cricket bowl
joint
Radius Long Pronation of the forearm Out-sweep of a
and wrist. breastroke stroke in
swimming
Ulna Long Supination and pronation Hitting a forearm shot
of the forearm and wrist in tennis
Carpals Short/Sesamoid Structure to hand, fine Spinning a ball in
motor movements cricket
Metacarpals Long Fine motor movements Catching a frisbee.
Phalanges Long Fine motor movements Holding a bat

Lower Body
Bone Type Role in Movement Example
Pelvis Flat Support and a point of Kicking action in
attachment to the legs. soccer
Femur Long Provides support for the leg Kicking in AFL
Weight bearing
Patella Sesamoid Extension and flexion of the Kicking a ball in a
leg, protects the knee joint soccer game
Tibia Long Rotation at knee joint Changing direction in
Weight bearing netball attacking
Fibula Long Allows rotation at the knee Changing direction in
joint and pronation and netball attacking
supination of the lower legs
Tarsals Short Structure and movement Hopping
Metatarsals Long Balance and support for Running in any sport
walking. Distributes weight.
Phalanges Long Support and balance Being on point in
ballet

Synovial joints
Type Movement Example
Ball and Socket • Flexion Shoulder
• Extension
• Abduction
• Adduction
• External rotation
• Internal rotation
• Circumduction
Hinge • Flexion Elbow
• Extension
Saddle • Flexion Thumb
• Extension
• Adduction
• Abduction
Pivot • Rotation Atlantoaxial joint
(neck)
Gliding • Flexion Carpals
• Extension
• Adduction
• Abduction
• Plantar and dorsi
flexion
Condyloid • Flexion Metacarpophalangeal
• Extension joint (fingers meet
• Abduction hand)
• Abduction

joint actions
Action Description Example
Flexion Decreases angle Prep for basketball shot

Extension Increases angle High jump take off

Abduction Away from body Outward star jumps

Adduction Towards body Inward star jumps

Circumduction Circular motion - 360 Backstroke swimming

Rotation Twisting Bilateral breathing in

freestyle.

Pronation Palm down Dribbling in basketball

Supination Palm up Preparing an underarm

pitch in softball

Inversion Sole of foot in Changing direction in

netball

Eversion Sole of foot out Breaststroke kick in

swimming

Dorsiflexion Toes up Hurdle athletics

Plantarflexion Toes down Block start athletics

major muscles
Muscle Origin Insertion Joint Action
Biceps Brachii Humerus and Scapula Radius Elbow flexion,
Forearm supination
Triceps brachii Humerus and scapula Ulna Elbow Extension
Deltoid Scapula and clavicle Humerus Shoulder flexion (raising your arm),
abduction and adduction of arm
Pectoralis Major Sternum and clavicle Humerus Arm adduction, Flexion and rotation
of the shoulder
Trapezius Thoracis vertebrae and ribs Scapula and Scapula Adduction and elevation of
clavicle shoulders
Gluteus Maximus Pelvis and sacrum Femur Extension and abduction of thigh
Quadriceps femoris Pelvis and femur Tibia and Hip flexion
Patella Knee extension - more important
Hamstrings Pelvis and femur Tibia and Hip extension
Fibula Knee Flexion - more important
Gastrocnemius Femur - because it is so long it Tarsal Knee Flexion
goes up behind the knee Plantar flexion

Soleus Tibia and Fibula Tarsal Plantar flexion

Tibialis Anterior Tibia Tarsals and Dorsi flexion and inversion of foot
Metatarsals
Rectus Abdominus Ribs Pelvis Flexion of trunk
Latissimus Dorsi Thoracic and lumbar vertebrae Humerus Shoulder extension, arm adduction
and pelvis
Erector Spinae Skull Sacrum Extension of back
External Oblique Ribs Pelvis Flexion and rotation of trunk

characteristics and functions of muscle fibres

Structure of skeletal muscles
• Fascia -> muscle fibres -> myofibrils -> sarcomere -> actin and
myosin
• Fascia – connective tissue
• Myofibrils – long cylinders
• Sarcomere – structure units containing protein
• Actin and myosin – protein filaments, slide along each
other = contraction

Types of muscle fibres

Slow Twitch
• Contract slowly for long time
• Endurance activities (resistant to fatigue)
• e.g., Marathon
• Good blood supply = red
• Aerobic energy source (oxygen -> ATP)

Fast Twitch
• Contract quickly
• High force exertion
• Tire rapidly - anaerobic energy
• Lack of blood supply = white
 Type Characteristics Example
Fast-twitch A • High output for 400m run
longer
• Aerobic and
anerobic
Fast-twitch B • Only anaerobic 100m sprint
• High glycogen
• Fatigue quickly

types of muscle contractions

Type Characteristics Example Image
Isotonic Shortens Bicep – upward
Concentric phase of bicep curl

Isotonic Eccentric Lengthens Bicep – downward

phase of bicep curl

Isometric No change in length Erector spinae and

rectus abdominus
- plank

muscle relationship
• Antagonistic muscle pairs
• One contracts, one lengthens (relaxes)

Role Description Example – upward phase of

bicep curl
Agonist Prime mover, Bicep
contracting
Antagonist Lengthening or Tricep
relaxing
Stabiliser Gives muscle fixed Deltoid
base, minimal
movement

Outline the interrelationship between biomechanical principles and the muscles, bones and joints of the body
for safe movement
Biomechanics: the study of human movement -> tries to make movement for efficient and effective
• Kinetics: forces acting on the body
• Kinematics: movement of the body

Law Definition Example

First- Inertia Objects will remain at rest or in a uniform A ball that is at rest will not start rolling
motion in a straight line unless acted unless an external unbalanced force acts
upon by an unbalanced external force. on it. For example, if you kick the ball, it
will start to move and it will continue to
move at the same velocity unless a force
acts on it to slow it down.
Second - F = ma Acceleration of an object depends on the A truck requires more force to slow down
mass of an object and the force acting on compared to a car going at the same
it. speed due to the larger acceleration of
F=mxa the truck.
 Third - Equal For every action there is an equal and When a tennis ball hits the floor, it
opposite opposite reaction. creates a downward force on the floor.
The floor then responds with an equal
action acting in the opposite direction, up
on the ball causing it to bounce up.

Including:
how biomechanical principles are applied to human movement, including motion, balance and stability, fluid
mechanics and force
Motion
Motion: movement of a body from one position to another.
• Three types:
Type Definition Example
Linear The body and all parts connected to it 50 m freestyle – swim in a straight line from start
travel the same distance in the same to finish.
direction at the same speed
• Modify and eliminate faults that
contribute to non-linear
movement
Angular Body moves along a circular path at the Internal axis: joint in the body which a moving
same angle in the same direction, at the body part rotates -> arm moving around shoulder
same time. joint in cricket pitch.
• Rotation
External axis: gymnast rotating around the high
bar.
General Combination of linear and angular Running the 100m sprint because there is angular
motion. rotation in the arms and legs

Concept Definition Example

Velocity The rate of positional change of an object. 400m run
• Displacement divided by time
Speed Rate of an objects movement. 100m sprint
• Distance divided by time
Acceleration Rate at which velocity changes Sprinter must overcome inertia in the blocks
Momentum Quantity of motion a body possesses Linear: 100m sprint
• Linear = straight line
• Angular = not straight line Angular: discus throw

Balance and stability

Good balance enables the easy accomplishment of many movement skills. Balance refers to being in a state of
equilibrium.
• Static Balance: ability to maintain a position of enduring stability.
• E.g., archery, held position in gymnastics
• Dynamic Balance: ability to balance while in motion and performing a skill.
• E.g., drop kick in AFL

Factor Explanation Example

Centre of Gravity Point at which all the weight of an object is High jumpers lower their centre of gravity
evenly distributed and about which the in the steps before the take-off.
object is balanced. Static balance requires the manipulation
of the centre of gravity.
Base of Support Imaginary area that surrounds the outside A dance performing a pirouette has a
edge of the body, Sustains the balance of very narrow base of support.
all individuals.
• Narrow = less stable
 • Wide = more stable
• Far away = unstable
Line of Gravity Imaginary vertical line passing through the Swimmers on diving block move their
centre of gravity and extending to the line of gravity forward off the diving
ground. Indicating the direction in which block, therefore requiring less force to
gravity is acting on the body. move the body forward and into the
• Movement occurs when the line of water
gravity changes in relation to the
base of support.

• Increasing stability and balance:

• Lower centre of gravity
• Line of gravity within base of support
• Increase base of support
Example: wrestlers widen their base of support.

• Decreasing stability and balance:

• Raise an objects centre of gravity
• Shifting the line of gravity outside the base of support
• Narrowing the base of support
Example: swimmers will move their line of gravity forward to dive off the block.

Fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics: the branch of mechanics that is concerned with properties of gases and liquids.
Concept Definition Performance consideration Example
Flotation Maintain a stationary • Impacts on ability to learn Someone's feet may drag beneath
position on the to swim then in backstroke if they are not
surface of water • Total body density is higher good at floating. This increases
than water we sink drag.
Centre of Centre of buoyancy is • Higher center of buoyancy Core muscles turned on will assist
buoyancy the centre of gravity helps keep the legs in maintaining buoyancy and
of the fluid displaced elevated, reducing drag in floating.
by a floating object. swimming
Around this point, all • Conserves energy
the buoyancy forces • Misalignment can cause
are balanced. tilting in water = drag
Fluid Exerts a force and Drag: Force that opposes the Drag: body misalignment e.g.,
resistance simultaneously forward motion of an object. flexed toes increases drag, race
encounters a suit.
resisting force from Lift: provides swimmer with force
the medium they are required for movement and Lift: keeping objects airborne e.g.,
moving through. performance. Lift to improve their discus and javelin
movement in water.

Force
Force: an influence that can cause a change in an object's motion or shape.
• Internal force: inside body
• External force: outside body
• Applied force: generated by muscles and applied to surfaces
• Reaction force: equal and opposite forces exerted in response to applied forces

• Movement comes from an imbalance in forces.

• Forces exerted through the body or when catching objects, forces are absorbed through the joints.
• E.g., basketball: knees bend to absorb force of jump rebound.
 • Considerations:
• Quantity of force
• Object mass (weight)
• Object mass (size)

how biomechanical principles can be used to enhance safe movements

Biomechanics allows individuals to optimise technique to make it safer and more efficient for movement.
• Decreases the risk of movements: by examining balance, stability, and force, we can identity which
movement patterns might increase the chances of hurting ourselves and determine how we can reduce
this risk.

Movement Biomechanical applications Implications for movement

Walking • Force is applied from feet to ground • More internal force can lead to a larger
and ground to feet in order to move reaction force = faster movement
• Internal forces to move limbs • Correct footwear can help improve
• Footwear can help absorb impact sustainability of the movement
• Overstriding or lateral rotation of the • Reduces the risk of movements
feet results in poor balance and • Understanding risk factors, you can
uneven force distribution, which correct technique to reduce risk of
increases the risk of injuries like shin injury.
splints.
• Engage core muscles, neutral pelvis
Lifting • Force is applied from person to • Prevent injury through correct technique
ground, and ground to person in order • larger internal force = more efficient
to move the weight movement, decreases strain on
• Correct technique should include core muscles and joints.
muscle activation for balance, • Ensure force is applied to the larger
stability, and to protect the back – muscle groups like legs instead of the
neutral spine, bend of the knees. back and spine
• Increases balance and stability thereby
increasing efficiency of movement
Specific • Biomechanical principles are • Prevents pressure ulcers and improves
needs incorporated into assistive devices like postural support
wheelchairs, prosthetic limbs • Making movement safer in the long run
• Customised wheelchairs distribute
force evenly across the body and have
a wide base of support to enhance
balance and stability
Squatting • Forces need to be distributed in the • Ensures the movement is stable and
right way efficient
• Neutral spine and engage the core • Reduces the risk of overuse injury
• Ensure knees stay in line with the toes, • Redistributes force to large muscle
to allow all large muscle groups to be groups
involved
• Balance is important, so give stable
base of support with the feet, wide
base of support

how biomechanical principles can be used to increase movement efficiency

• Choose the best technique to achieve the most appropriate movement with consideration of body
shape
• Reduce the risk of injury by improving the way athletes move
• Design and use equipment that contribute to improve movement
• Reduce injury
 Purpose Biomechanical applications Benefits for movement efficiency
Reducing Biomechanical principle of force and • Absorption on larger muscle groups reduces
injury learning how to absorb force in injury on smaller groups
movement prevents injury • PPE absorbs force to protect injury on bones ->
• Protective equipment shin pads
• Widening base of support • Improve stability -> lower centre of gravity in
• Bending knees when absorbing rugby tackle
force
Increased • Generating large forces through • Obtaining maximum forces through arms =
accessibility the arms in wheelchair racing speed
for athletes • Prosthetic limbs to support the • Generating force and power
with weight of muscles • Lower centre of gravity = less surface drag and
specific wind resistance
needs • Blade applies force, generation of force =
speed

Explain the interrelationship between the respiratory and circulatory systems and movement
Including:
structure and function
Respiration
Respiration equation:
Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + energy + water

Structure of respiratory system

Structure Function
Nasal Cavity Air is warmed, moistened, and filtered of foreign material.
Pharynx Passage for air and food
Larynx Voice box
Trachea Tube with cartilage that goes from mouth and nose to bronchus
Bronchi Two bronchi, deliver air to lungs.
Bronchioles Smaller than bronchi, deliver air to alveoli
Alveoli Air sacs at the end of bronchioles, gas exchange
Diaphragm Dome shaped muscle, contract = big chest cavity, relax = small cavity
Pleural Membrane Lubricated membrane, allow free movement of lungs against chest wall

Function of respiratory system

Breathing:
Inspiration: air into lungs
• Diaphragm contracts - down
• Flattens intercostal muscles
• Ribs out and up
• Volume of chest cavity increases
• Decreases pressure in lungs
• Air into lungs
Expiration: air out of lungs
• Diaphragm relaxes – up
• Intercostal muscles relax
• Ribs to resting position
• Volume of chest cavity decreases
• Increases air pressure
• Air out of lungs

Normal breathing rate = 12-18 beats/min

Breathing rate during exercise = 40-50 beats/min

Respiratory Response to Exercise:

• Pulmonary ventilation increases – direct proportion to intensity and
metabolic needs
• Increase in tidal volume (quantity of air)
• Increase in breathing rate (times per minute)

Structure of circulatory system

Circulation:
The constant blood flow from the heart to the body.
Blood:
Component Definition Function
Plasma Clear, yellow, disc shaped fluid. Transports cells, proteins, hormones, and
Consists of water, salt, etc. nutrients, remove waste products.
Red Blood Cells Made in bone marrow, part of blood. Haemoglobin - carries oxygen.
White Blood cells Made in bone marrow, part of blood Part of immune system – fighting infection.
and lymph tissue.
Platelets Colourless disc shaped cell Clot blood and stop bleeding.
fragments in blood.

Heart:
• Muscle
• Pump blood around body
• 4 chambers – left and right atrium, left and right ventricle

Blood flow through the heart • In: vena cava

• Out: aorta
• Between chambers = valves (backflow)
• Systole: blood from heart to arteries
• Wall of right atrium = electrical impulse (pacemaker)
Blood supply to the heart • Cardiac blood vessels off the aorta
• Heart wall = myocardium
• Coronary circulation
Blood Vessels:
Provide • Nutrients
• Hormones
• Oxygen
Remove • Carbon
dioxide
• Waste

Types:
Blood Vessel Picture Description
Arteries • Blood away from heart
• Thick, strong elastic walls
• Branch into smaller arterioles
then capillaries
• Pulse

Capillaries • Small
• Exchange oxygen for waste
• Large surface area
• Semi-permeable membrane
 Veins • Deoxygenated blood from
tissue to heart
• Pressure is low
• Valves to prevent backflow
• Disposal of waste

Function of circulatory system

1. Transportation - oxygen and nutrients and removal of CO2
2. Protection – immune system
3. Regulation – temperature
• Vasodilation (cool)
• Vasoconstriction (heat)

pulmonary and systemic blood circulation and gaseous exchange

Pulmonary and systemic circulation
Pulmonary circulation:
• Blood flow from the heart to lungs to heart
• Closed circuit
• Figure 8

Systemic circulation:
• Blood flow from heart to body to heart
• From aorta (3 branches)
• Upper body
• Lower body
• Brain/spinal cord

Gaseous exchange
Definition:
• Process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide move between the bloodstream and the lungs
• Diffusion: moving from high to low concentration

Process:
• Air to alveoli
• Alveoli surrounded by capillary
• Capillaries have lots of CO2 and alveoli have lots of O2
• Difference in concentration = diffusion
• Oxygen -> blood -> haemoglobin -> body
• CO2 -> lungs -> expelled

factors that impact on the efficiency of the cardiovascular system

Altitude
• At an altitude of 1500m or higher above sea level, air is thinner (hypoxic) so the lungs struggle to extract
sufficient amounts of oxygen to deliver to the muscles and tissues.
• Not used to these conditions = acute hypoxia = detrimental impact on cardiovascular system
• Shortness of breath, rapid breathing, coma
• Gradual acclimatisation = positive effect on cardiovascular system
 • Hypoxia produced at altitude stimulates physiological adaptations that improve
functioning
• Air thinner so therefore body produces more red blood cells and therefore haemoglobin
• This can lead to improvements in endurance performances at sea level
• Example: 1968 Olympic Games – 2240m above sea level, poor endurance performance but many sprint
records. AIS Endurance House – live high, train low.

Haemoglobin Levels
• Higher haemoglobin = more oxygen can be absorbed from the lungs and carried to the muscles and
tissues = positive impact on cardiovascular system and overall health
• Exercise for greater intensities for longer periods before fatiguing
• More endurance
• Low levels (anaemia and iron deficiency) = reduces the body’s ability to deliver oxygen at rest and during
exercise, inadequate oxygen is being delivered to the muscles and tissues = negative impact
• Example: In Endurance Sport Journal (2022) stated “there was a positive association between absolute
VO2 max and haemoglobin levels.”

Vascular Disease
• Caused by a number of conditions that affect the blood vessels
• Main cause is atherosclerosis which is the build up of fatty or fibrous material known as plaque
on the interior walls of arteries
• Negative impact because the functions of blood vessels cannot be performed effectively
• Insufficient oxygen and nutrient delivery
• Poor waste removal
• Hinders blood flow to body tissues
• Increases blood pressure
• Decreases elasticity of artery walls
• Overt time this can lead to heart attacks, stroke, or peripheral vascular disease
• Bad for exercise and performance because it deprives the working muscles of the oxygen they require to
function

Explain the interrelationship between the digestive and endocrine systems and movement, including structure
and function and factors that impact on the efficiency of the systems
Structure and Function of the Digestive System
• Through digest the body extracts key nutrients from food
• Growth, maintenance, repair, reproduction, and energy

Digestive tract
Structure Function
Mouth Food broken up by teeth, moistened with saliva.
Oesophagus Carries food to stomach, involuntary muscles
Stomach Stores and breaks down food
Small intestine Absorbs nutrients
Large intestine Absorbs water and electrolytes, create waste
Rectum Stores stool before excretion

Accessory organs
• Food does not pass through these organs, but they produce enzymes that assist digestion
• Interrelationship between the digestive and endocrine systems

Structure Function
Salivary glands Enzyme amylase breaks down starches.
Liver Digestive juice (bile) digests fat and neutralises stomach acid.
 Gall bladder Bile is stored, released into the small intestine where the bile
dissolves fat for the pancreas.
Pancreas Produces pancreatic juice which is delivered to the small
intestine. Digestive enzymes to break down carbs, fats, and
proteins.

Structure and Function of the Endocrine System

• Glands that secrete hormones (discrete chemical substances)
• Control system – homeostasis

Function
• regulating the growth of many tissues such as bone and muscle
• regulating water balance in the body
• regulating iron in the blood
• regulating heart rate and blood pressure, helping prepare the
body for physical activity
• regulating blood glucose
• regulating immune system
• reproduction.

Glands
Gland Hormones Target tissues Movement
Hypothalamus Releasing and Pituitary gland Links nervous system to endocrine system to
inhabiting control many internal conditions
hormones
Pituitary gland Growth hormone Bones and Stimulates muscle growth
muscles
Endorphins Blocks pain
Through the body
Adrenal gland Adrenaline Body cells Increases body metabolism (fight or flight).

Cortisol Body cells Increases blood sugar levels, metabolism of

fats, carbs, and proteins. Suppresses
immune response.
Pancreas Glucagon Liver Raises blood glucose levels.

Interrelationship
• Hormones enable the process of digestion
• Increasing or decreasing cellular processes
• Insulin levels are suppressed in exercise
• Hormones that play a role in movement:
• adrenaline: increase HR and BP for oxygen to muscles
• growth hormone: growth and repair of muscle tissue, muscle hypertrophy
• cortisol: increase blood glucose levels, metabolism
• endorphins: reduce pain, increase pleasure

Explain the interrelationship between the nervous system and movement, including structure and function
Function
• Control voluntary and involuntary movement
• Maintain homeostasis -> detects, interprets, and responds to changes in internal and external
conditions
• Support memory and learning
 • Monitor sensory input and control response

Structure
CNS (Central Nervous System)
• Brain and spinal cord -> protected by bone
• Processing the information received by the PNS

Brain
• Internal information – regulating HR, BP, respiration
rate, temperature, digestion, etc.
• Receiving and responding to the external
environment
• Soft, wrinkled mass of tissue – 1.3-1.4kg

Structure Location Function

Frontal lobe Front • Voluntary movement
• Planning
• Intellect
• Problem solving
• Abstract reasoning
Parietal lobe Middle top • Touch perception
• Movement control
• Manipulation of objects
Temporal lobe Bottom • Long-term memory
• Speech comprehension
• Objects perception
• Problem solving
• Face recognition
• Hearing
Occipital lobe Back • Visual reception
• Local orientation
• Shape perception
Cerebellum Back and • Coordination
bottom • Balance
• Reflex motor acts
• Voluntary motor skills
Brain stem Underneath • Conduction
• Tract for pain, temperature,
and pressure sensations.

Spinal cord
• Links the peripheral nervous system to the brain
• Base of skull to first lumbar vertebra -> 31 pairs of spinal
nerves
• Main functions:
• Controls reflexes – reflect is initiated in the spinal
cord not the brain
• Transmits information from peripheral nerve to
the brain

PNS (Peripheral Nervous System)

• Includes sensory receptors, the nerves that link receptors with the CNS, and the nerves that link the
CNS with the effectors (structure that responds to stimulus, like muscles)
• Detects stimuli and initiates a response
 • Responsible for controlling voluntary skeletal muscle movements like running and walking
• Controls involuntary movements such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration
• Example:
• Sensory neurons:
• Hear the gun go off
• transfer the signal that it is time to start the race to the interneurons
• Interneurons:
• Receive information from sensory neurons
• processes this information
• Makes a decision to push off the blocks and accelerate into a sprint
• Sends this message to the motor neurons
• Moto neurons:
• Receives the message
• Carries out the movement by stimulating the neurons in the leg muscles to extend, the arms to
push forward off the ground, and the hips to extend in order to stand upright

Nerves
Neurons
• Receiving and sending messages
• Neurons connected in bundles called nerves
• Allow voluntary movement – connected to muscles
• Three main types of neurons

Types of neurons
Neuron type Location Function Example
Sensory neuron PNS • Connects to sensory Touching a hot plate, getting the
organs sensory information from hands and
• Detect stimuli transfer signal to CNS saying that
• Transmit messages to CNS hand is hot.
Interneuron CNS • Receive message from CNS receives the signal and
sensory neurons interprets it as the hand touching a
• Process information hot plate. Then transfers a message
• Send a response to motor to the motor neurons.
neurons
Motor neuron PNS • Receive message from CN Motor neurons receive signal from
• Connect with effectors to CNS. Then connect with effectors in
carry out response skeletal muscles to remove hand
from plate.

Demonstrate and analyse how the systems of the body work together in a variety of movements
Discuss the role first aid plays in response to movement
First aid is the initial care of an individual who is sick or injured.
Factor Role in movement Example How to minimise
Inefficient �Incorrect technique can A continued incorrect body Yoga and pilates to
movement – skill cause injuries such as stress position in swimming such strengthen core and
and technique fractures, damage to muscle was looking forward can increase flexibility to
and bones. place undue stress on the maximise movement
neck and back leading to and prevent injury
� Correct skill development injury and inefficient
is essential to prevent injury – movement.
core and posture
Inefficient � Stretching ensures A high jumper will focus Educate and
movement – muscles don’t tear and taping stretching calf, quads, encourage daily
stretching and supports joints during hamstrings (legs) as the stretching.
preventative movement (stimulates demands for these muscles
taping muscles around the point). are greater. This will increase RICER
(prophylactic flexibility and range of
measures) �Overstretching a cold movement during sport.
muscle can lead to tear and
over-reliance on tape can
cause the joint to remain
weak.
Dehydration �Can cause: Harder for blood and oxygen Continual
• Fatigue to travel around the body. consumption of
• Nausea water and
• Headaches Harder to maintain exercise electrolytes during
• Thirst intensity level. activity to prevent
• Plasma is 55% of dehydration.
blood and 90% of
plasma is water
Undue stress on �Chronic psychological and Deterioration in performance Adequate recovery
the body - physiological condition and burnout. Skill, time during sessions
overtraining caused by training loads that technique, decision making, with enough sleep
are too demanding. and focus is all impaired. and nutrition.
• Fatigue
• Sprains and fractures RICER
• Amenorrhea
• Suppressed immune
system

What factors influence movement and performance?

Analyse the ATP-PCr, Glycolytic (Lactic Acid) and Aerobic energy systems of the body including fuel source and
efficiency of ATP production, duration, intensity and rate of recovery, causes of fatigue and interplay of the
energy systems
Factor ATP-PCr Glycolyctic Aerobic
Diagram

Source of PCr - phosphocreatine Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates, fat, or protein

Fuel Glucose - in blood Carbohydrates are preferred
Glycogen - in muscles + Fat if over 1 hr
liver

Efficiency of Very good for rapid supply of Quick ATP production but Slower ATP production, but an
ATP energy - relying on fatigues drastically as lactic endless supply
production concentration of PCr and ATP acid levels rise.
in the muscle cells Does not last for long
Recovery quickly activities
Unsustainable beyond 10-15
seconds
Short, explosive movements

Duration and 10-15 seconds of high- 30 secs to 2 mins of 350 grams of glycogen in
intensity intensity activity (95-100% of relatively high intensity body: 1 hr of hard work, 4-6
maximum effort) activity (70% - 85% hours of intermittent exercise.
Full restoration within 2 maximum effort) Marathon runners - stores
minutes could be exhausted in 2 hours.
Fatigue is caused by inability Fat is pretty much unlimited
to resynthesis ADP from PCr and used after carbs are gone.
because PCr stores exhaust Glycogen sparing
65-70% of body's maximum
heart rate

Cause of Depletion of PCr stores Accumulation of lactic acid When glycogen stores run out,
fatigue faster than it can be muscles fatigue.
removed. Hydrogen ions Exhaustion of carbohydrates
accumulate which causes a and subsequent reliance on
decrease in pH and secondary fuel sources ->
increases acidosis of the hitting the wall
muscle cell.

By-Products NIL – heat produced by Lactic acid Co2; water

muscle contraction

Recovery Activity decreases or ceases. Activity intensity decreases Activity intensity decreases or
Process Increased breathing rate as or ceases. Increased ceases. Replenishing
PC is replenished in the breathing rate as lactic acid glycogen and glucose stores
presence of O2 is broken down in the through eating or drinking.
presence of O2.

Recovery 50 % recovered in Lactic acid diffuses from Up to 48 hours depending on

Rate approximately 30 secs. Fully muscles into the level of dehydration
recovered in approximately 2 bloodstream.
mins Liver -> lactic acid is
reconverted to glycogen
and can be used as a fuel
source
 30-60 minutes

Sporting 100m sprinter 200m, 400m and 800m run, Marathon

Examples High jump 100m and 200m freestyle Triathlon
Discus throw swim

Explain the role nutrition plays in enabling the energy systems to function efficiently, including macronutrient
and micronutrient requirements of active people
Macronutrients
Main nutrients in the foods we eat, main source of fuel for energy systems.
Macronutrients Daily Key Functions Food Sources
Energy %
Carbohydrates 45-65 • Energy -> instant and stored as • Whole grains
glycogen in the muscles and liver • Vegetables
• Digestion and fibre -> promotes good • Fruits
gut health • Beans
• Dairy
Proteins 20-35 • Create new proteins • Poultry
• Repair body tissues and muscles • Eggs
• Provide structure to membranes • Red meat
• Seafood
• Dairy
• Soy products
Fats 10-35 • Cell membrane health • Extra virgin olive oil
• Store energy • Avocado
• Transport and absorption of fat- • Nuts
soluble vitamins like K, E, D and A • Seeds
• Insultation of organs • Dairy

Aerobic: prioritise glycogen and carbs

• Low GI carbs night before race day
• High GI carbs during race

Anaerobic: prioritise protein

• Muscle development

Micronutrients
Include chemical elements requires in small amounts for the health growth and functioning of cells.
Micronutrient Role in Energy Metabolism Food Source
Vitamin B1 • Supports carbohydrate and amino • Meats
(Thiamine) acid metabolism • Fish
• Nerve impulse transmission. • Whole grains like quinoa
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) • Cell metabolism including carbs, • Brown rice
amino acids, and fat breakdown. • Fish
• Poultry
Calcium • Cellular respiration • Dairy foods
• ATP production • Leafy greens
• Soy products

Compare the difference between aerobic and anaerobic training for individuals and group sports, including
differentiated training programs and contemporary methods of training
Aerobic
 • Aerobic threshold refers to the level of exercise intensity that is sufficient to cause a training effect ->
70% of MHR
• Target zone is the zone in which the athlete needs to work at an intensity for fitness gains to be made ->
55-85% of MHR
Long, slow distance training • 20+ minutes
Continuous • Best results 70-85% MHR
• Solid aerobic fitness base
• Distance not speed
• Replicates remands of the sport
High intensity, moderate duration • 80-90% MHR
• Replicates competition
• Leg speed not distance
• 1-15 minute

Anaerobic
• Shorter in duration than aerobic training, lasting less than 2 minutes.
• Effort is at high intensity, followed by short rest periods that do not allow fully recovery of energy
systems.
• Athletes should train within their anaerobic threshold to build a greater lactic tolerance.
Type Use Work Ratio % Max % Max HR
Speed
Long Glycolytic/aerobic 1-2 minutes 1:1 70-80 85-90
Improve tolerance
for lactic acid
built up
Medium Glycolytic 25 sec – 1 min 1:2 80-90 95
Short ATP-Pcr Less than 25 sec 1:3 95-100 100
Improve ability to
replenish ATP-PCr
stores

Differentiated Training Programs

• Should address the needs of the specific athlete and requirements of the sport
• Incorporate both anaerobic and aerobic training
• Individual or group sport will differ

Contemporary Forms of Exercise

HIIT:
• High-intensity interval training
• Repeated periods of intense anaerobic work are alternated with brief periods of recovery
• Near maximum intensity is a prerequisite for work periods 80-95% of MHR.
• Intensity should drop during the recovery period to 40-50% of MHR.
• 20 minutes to an hour
• Definition: HIIT involves bouts of high-intensity exercise followed by varying periods of complete rest or
recovery at lower intensity.

Why It’s Effective:

• It allows high-intensity training without excessive fatigue and forces the body to adapt, leading to:
• Growth of capillaries and stronger muscles (including the heart)
• Better performance and tolerance to lactic acid
• Lower risk of overuse injuries
• Improved aerobic fitness
• Easier transition to new exercises without quick fatigue

SIT:
• High-intensity interval training
• Working at a high intensity followed by intervals of low intensity
• Training intensity should be about 80-95% of MHR
• Recovery should be at about 40-50% of MHR
• Definition: a form of high-intensity training characterised by repeated, brief, intermittent bursts of
supramaximal intensity exercise, interspersed by periods of active or passive recovery.
• Increasing lactate threshold - tolerance to lactic acid

Design an aerobic or anaerobic training program based on the FITT principle

Principle What is it? Endurance Program Muscular Strength Program

Frequency How often training 3-5 times a week. 2-3 times a week
should occur.

Intensity Level of difficulty of 70-85% MHR = aerobic training 85-100% MHR = anaerobic
exercise. zone threshold

Time The duration of each 30 minutes minimum 2–3-minute intervals

session. 30-60 minutes get the best results Training for at least 45 minutes
Type Refers to the nature Continuous training Anaerobic interval training
of the exercise • Running • Resistance training
• Cycling • Weight training
• Swimming • Plyometrics

Explain the immediate physiological responses to training, heart rate, ventilation rate, stroke volume, cardiac
output and lactate levels
Factor Definition Response Reasoning
Heart Rate Number of heart beats per Increases in proportion to exercise Delivers more blood
minute intensity. (and thus oxygen) to
Contractions of ventricles Resting heart rate is lower in working muscles.
trained individuals.
Resting HR = 70-90 (non- Faster return to resting HR post-
elite), 30 (elite) exercise in fit people (indicator of
good cardiovascular health).
Ventilation Rate Number of breaths taken Increases to meet the rising Enhances oxygen intake.
per minute oxygen demands of muscles. Removes carbon dioxide
Depth (tidal volume) and rate of more efficiently.
breathing both increase.
Stroke Volume Amount of blood pumped Increases during exercise, Delivers more blood
from the left ventricle per especially in trained individuals. (and thus oxygen) to
heartbeat. Higher SV means the heart pumps working muscles.
more efficiently. Trained individuals may
have a higher SV even at
rest.
Cardiac Output Total volume of blood Increases due to both elevated HR Supplies muscles with
pumped by the heart per and SV during exercise. more oxygen and
minute. At rest ~5 L/min; during exercise nutrients.
CO = HR x SV can exceed 20–30 L/min.
Lactate Levels The amount of lactic acid in Increase with intense or prolonged Indicates anaerobic
the blood, a by-product of exercise. energy system activity.
anaerobic metabolism. Training raises the lactate Accumulation
threshold, meaning the body can contributes to muscle
work harder before fatigue sets in. fatigue.
Trained athletes clear lactate more
efficiently.

Debate the purpose and outcomes of testing physical fitness for different groups in the population
Group Tests Purpose/Outcomes
Elite Athletes • Vertical jump (leg power) • Assess physiological adaptations
• 1RM bench press (upper body • Review training effectiveness if no
strength) progress
• Timed sprint with lactate (speed) • Provides measurable and repeatable
• Swimming beep, step, and VO2 data
max tests (fitness)
Older Adults • Chair stand (lower body strength) • Maintain bone density, posture, balance,
• Arm curl (upper body strength) flexibility, strength, and aerobic capacity
• Sitting rising test (flexibility, • Inform medical professionals
balance, muscle strength) • Can motivate participants
• Timed walking tests (aerobic
capacity)
Children • Chair push-up (upper body • Ensure age-appropriate fitness activities
strength) • Introduce variety in physical activity
• Sit and reach (flexibility) • Can be motivating
• Crunch (abdominal strength) • Helps shape physical activity habits
 • Beep test (aerobic capacity)

How are movement skills acquired, developed and improved?

Apply an understanding of how movement skills are acquired, developed and improved for recreational and
elite athletes
Including:
characteristics of learners
CHAPP
Characteristic Description Influence on skill Example
acquisition
Confidence Critical in skill acquisition. Elite: May choose to give up Elite: confidence to stick to a
Positive achievement competition, won’t perform new race place.
enhances confidence and at their best. Recreational: giving a new
provides the foundation for Recreational: Unlocks fitness class a go.
future skill building. belief in perseverance and
Successive failure can collaboration.
destroy confidence.
Heredity Limit the dimensions of Elite: influences positions Elite: prop positions in ruby
potential: in a team union must be larger for scrum
• % of fast-twitch slow Recreational: easier to Recreational: basketball
twitch learn skills and have fun. positions
• Somatotype –
ectomorphy (linear),
mesomorphy
(muscularity),
endomorphy
(roundness)
• Gender
• Height
• Conceptual ability
Ability The way an individual is able Recreational: cannot read Elite: can visualise what
to learn, process, and the play as easily, slower happens in a tennis serve.
implement new skills. reaction to stimuli. Recreational: cannot visualise
Incorporates factors such as Elite: possess an ability to plays as well.
sense of awareness, readily understand practice
perception, reaction time, tasks and solve problems.
and intelligence.
Acuity: sharpness; a sense of
being able to hear, see, and
think clearly and quickly.
Personality Positive learning attributes Elite: dedication to training, Elite: Dedication to training and
such as determination, learning, teamwork, and improvement.
enthusiasm, and dedication collaboration. Recreational: there to have fun
can be beneficial to learning Recreational: enjoyment of and enjoy physical activity.
new skills. physical activity and ability
Personality: an individual's to improve.
characteristic way of
behaving
Prior Prior experience has the Elite: easily transferable Lateral transfer: hockey to
Experience potential to accelerate the skills from one activity to soccer using defending skills
learning process. This is another. Horizontal transfer: cricket to
called transfer of learning. Recreational: Basic motor softball using hand-eye
skills are systematically coordination and timing.
developed generally.
stages of learning/skill acquisition
Skill: the ability to consistently perform movement with control and precision.
Skill Acquisition: a gradual development process that requires our cognitive processes to work with our
physical abilities to learn how to perform movements that previously were unfamiliar to an athlete.

Stage Description Characteristics Coaching Example

Cognitive The learner High level of Positive motivation Recreational: Leaning how to
grasps what is thought and techniques swim -> struggle to coordinate
required in focus to execute Demonstrations arms and legs
order to the skill Use sub-routines
complete the Frequent, large Clear, explicit instructions Elite: Learning how to do a
movement errors Feedback after skill to cross-over turn in IM -> easier
skill. Disorientation avoid cognitive overload to grasp because they can
understand the movement
more
Associative The learner
Mistakes are Emphasis on timing and Recreational: Learners
knows what is
smaller and less sequencing understand how to swim ->
required to
frequent Positive reinforcement might occasionally mis-time
complete the
Kinaesthetic Demonstrations breathing
skill and is
sense improves Trying to put together
now Success is more subroutines Elite: Can perform a cross-
practicing the
frequent over turn well -> might mistake
movement to
Emphasis on body position sometimes
try to acquire
temporal
it. patterning and
timing.
Autonomous The learner is Execution of the Practice is still needed to Recreational: Now swims very
able to movement is simulate a competition well -> goes once a week for a
effectively properly situation. swim at the local pool for
execute the sequenced Pressure drills fitness
skill instinctively. Practice under varying
automatically. Characteristic conditions Elite: Uses race situation and
fluency. Fine tuning to improve max effort drills to improve in
Detect and efficiency. race simulation
correct their
own errors.
High level of
kinaesthetic
awareness.
Can respond to
external stimuli

characteristics of motor skills, including gross and fine, continuous, discrete and serial, open and closed, self-
paced and externally paced
Skill Definition Example
Fine Skill that uses small muscles of the body • Darts
• Finesse and precise movements • Archery
• Harder for beginner athlete • Spinning the ball (cricket)
Gross Skill that uses large muscle groups • Running
• Commonly found in team sports • Walking
• Easier to learn for a beginner athlete
Discrete Skills that have a distinct start and end • Forward and backwards roll
Serial Skills that involve a sequence of smaller movement • Layup in basketball
that are assembled to make a total skill • Throwing a discus/javelin
• Drop kick in football
 Continuous Skills that have no clear beginning or end (repeated • Swimming
skill) • Jogging
• Skiing
Open Skills that take place in an environment that’s • Sailing
constantly changing • Windsurfing
• Requires skill adaptation • Bowling in cricket
• Very hard for recreational athletes
Closed Skills that occur in a predictable environment • 1500m swim
• 10 pin bowling
• Gym floor routine
Self-paced Timing of movement is completely controlled by the • Tennis serve
athlete. • Penalty shot
• Easier to acquire than externally paces
• Think about the processes
Externally Timing of movement is not under the control of the • Dance routine
paced athlete • Returning a serve in tennis
• Dictated by external stimulus • Saving a soccer penalty shot
• More difficult to grasp
• Requires reaction time and conceptual ability

practice methods for the different stages of learning, including massed, distributed, whole, part, blocked and
random
Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages Best Suited Example
Massed Continuous Good for discrete Can cause Highly skilled & Basketball
training with skills, builds fatigue, not motivated athletes shooting
short rests efficiency, suitable good for
for skilled & exhausting
motivated skills
performers
Distributed Broken Allows mental Slower skill Beginners, complex Handstand 5
practice with processing, restores acquisition tasks, low motivation min,
longer rests energy, reduces cartwheel 5
or alternative fatigue, good for min; tackling
activities complex skills practice
Whole Skill Good for continuous Hard for Continuous & simple Running or
practiced as skills, easy to complex skills skills, advanced cycling
a complete visualise, suitable learners
unit for autonomous
learners
Part Skill broken Focus on difficult Hard for Beginners, complex Basketball
into sub- parts, suits cognitive skills layup, dance
skills, beginners, good for learners to routine,
practiced complex skills integrate parts gymnastic
separately sequence
Blocked Each skill Focus on difficult Poor transfer to Closed skills, beginners, Repeating
practiced parts, suits game cognitive stage learners serves or
repetitively in beginners, good for environment, digs in
isolation complex skills low variability volleyball
Random Different Builds basic skill Can be Open skills, Random
skills patterns, good for frustrating, associative/autonomous punches in
practiced in closed skills, frequent errors stage, elite athletes boxing
unpredictable cognitive stage
sequence

performance elements, including decision-making, strategic and tactical development

Decision-Making
 • Athletes must make decisions to influence the quality of performance
• E.g., who to pass to, whether to shoot or pass, or to surge in endurance event
• Opportunities to develop decision-making skills must be included to improve skill -> better decisions
under pressure

Strategic and Tactical Development

• In tactical sports such as basketball, touch, and cricket, the learning environment must reflect eh game
situations
• Develop an understand of how to effectively apply skills they have acquired in a game situation.
• Tactical development requires practice of pressure situations simulating a game.
• Games can progress to become more complex as people progress.

Developing Skills
• Asking questions to the athlete: “When
do you pass the ball”
• more reflection
• more decision making and
enhanced understanding
• Modified player numbers:
• 3 v 3 for beginner touch to give players more touches and opportunities to practice catching,
passing, and tactics
• Half court games in netball to enable strategies and set plays to be practiced under game
situations without two full teams
• Set plays:
• Set piece practice (for a corner or penalty kick) without opposition. Players learn to position
themselves according to a set strategy, can be practiced repeatedly.
• Continue to include variations on drills to enhance motivation and adjust techniques for new learning
outcomes.

types of feedback for different stages of learning, including task-intrinsic, augmented, concurrent, delayed,
knowledge of results, knowledge of performance
Type of Definition Type of learner Benefits Example
Feedback
Task Feedback that occurs Associative or Instant feedback In cricket, the batter sees the
Intrinsic as a normal autonomous ball, adjusts their body, and
consequence of then makes contact with the
performing a skill. ball. Responding to
• Proprioceptive proprioceptive mechanisms.
mechanisms
 • Kinaesthetic
awareness
(Internal)
Augmented All feedback other than Cognitive Ensures nothing Watching a video of the batter
that which occurs as a is missed by and then analysing various
normal consequence proprioceptive parts of the movement.
of preforming a skill. senses, and
(External) ensuring
different angles
can be
considered.
Concurrent Feedback received Associative Instant Performing a balance exercise
during the performance and feedback, or a dance skill, the internal
of a skill autonomous ensures correct feedback can help them
• Simultaneously skill execution. maintain the centre of gravity
with skill and maintain equilibrium. This
execution relies on internal concurrent
• Internal or feedback.
external
Delayed Feedback received Cognitive and Ensures no Elite rugby league athletes
after the skill has been elite for cognitive may rewatch games to analyse
executed analysis overload, more the execution of their skills,
• External in depth analysis strategies, and tactics to
sources like determine what worked and
videos, results, what did not work during the
coaches, etc. game to improve next time.
Knowledge Information about the All stages Improves Finding out how far you jump
of Results outcome of a motivation, in the long jump after you
movement. comparison to finish.
• Always subsequent
augmented results
• Usually delayed
• Suggests how
successfully a
skill was
executed
Knowledge Information about the All stages Ensures Coach reminding a junior
of pattern of the continued basketball player to hold the
Performance movement during motivation ball with two hands and close
execution. despite results to their chest to prevent the
• Can be internal ball being taken by a defensive
or external player during a game.
• Can be delayed
or concurrent
• Thinking about
the process

What is the relationship between psychology, movement and performance?

Analyse the relationship between psychology, movement and performance for individuals and groups
Psychology: the study of the human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behaviour in a given
context.

Including:
how does personal identity affect an individual’s participation and performance in sport?
Characteristic What is it How does it affect performance? Examples
 Knowledge, Refers to an individual’s • Knowledgeable about benefits = Lack of knowledge
values, and level of knowledge about more likely to value the about how to sign
attitudes the benefits of sport, how contribution to health and well- up for sport can
towards sport to access sport, and if they being = more likely to access be a barrier to
values physical activity. • Attitude = not like it = not priority participating in
and therefore less likely to physical activity.
participate.
Influence of Refers to how the people • Families who encourage their A young person
family and around an individual children to participate will who has not been
peers influence their perception develop lifelong habits – exposed to sport
of sport and physical exposure during youth from their family is
activity, especially young • Athletes’ family supporting asked to join a
people. during triumphs and failures = basketball team
more committed and resilient with their friends.
that if they didn’t support
Personal The belief and individual More self-confidence = more likely to A gymnast who
characteristics has about themselves and engage and perform well master’s a front
their abilities significantly • Sport as a challenge somersault will
impacts their confidence • Goal centred often have high
and whether they choose • Persevere self-efficacy to
to participate in sport or • Resilient attempt a back
not Less self-confidence = less likely to somersault
Self-efficacy: degree of engage
confidence in being able to • Avoid new experiences
carry out a task • Doubt their abilities
Self-confidence: feeling • Low expectations
of trust in one’s own an
• Give up easily
ability, qualities, and
Elite athletes can get ‘psyched out’
judgement

how does motivation support participation, including positive and negative, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
Motivation: internal state that activate, directs, and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal.
• Has a direct impact on their participation and performance.
• Not static, fluctuates over time.

Type Definition Advantages Disadvantages Example

Positive Occurs when an More sustainable in the Relies on continual self- I: getting fitter can
individual's long term reinforcement and/or serve as a
performance is reinforcement by others. motivator
driven by previous Better for self-esteem
reinforcing and efficacy. E: crowd clapping
behaviour. after a goal
Negative Characterised by Can be effective in the Not sustainable in the I: negative self-talk
an improvement in short term long term: after missing a goal
performance out of • Decline in
fear of the confidence E: coach
consequences of • Heightens continually
not performing to inhibiting punishing and
expectations. behaviours such threatening an
as a fear of risk athlete
taking or lack of
creativity
Intrinsic Motivation that Self-sustaining ad self- Can be hard to develop A recreational
comes from within reinforcing runner who gets up
the individual • effort and and runs of their
personal own every morning
 • Self- accomplishment without entering a
propelling becomes the race
force reward
Interest or love of • establishing
the activity competence is
enough

Extrinsic Occurs when an Can be effective in the Do not alter attitudes that An elite athlete that
individual's short term underlie behaviour is only motivated
internal state is Fluctuating and not by prize money,
modified by sustainable monetary
sources originating Shift concentration only incentives, or fear
from outside the to the outcome of retribution (e.g.,
person. Focuses Bribes and coercion getting dropped
on product praise, from the squad).
material reward,
financial
remuneration

why is self-regulation essential for sports performance and exercise behaviour change?
Self-regulation involves individuals consciously constraining unwanted thoughts or behaviours in order to
focus on the task at hand and achieve the desired goal or result.
Self- Characteristics and Impact on Example
Regulation Features Performance
High Levels • Understanding of Ability to improve A football player missed an open goal can
strengths and and enhance reflect on why they didn’t perform their
weaknesses performance best - leading to creation of future
• Capacity to improve because they direct strategies to improve
• Effective learning energy into training
environment and attainable
• Emotional regulation actions rather than
• Energy to achieve fearing failure or
goals focussing on
obstacles.
Low Levels • Poor awareness of Low levels of self- Poor sportsmanship - teammate misses a
strengths and regulation can goal and other players talk bad about them
weaknesses negatively impact an saying they should have scored that goal
• Inefficient decision athlete’s
making performance,
• Lack of emotional resulting in poor
regulation decision making and
• Volatility emotional outbursts,
• Low motivation, ultimately leading to
confidence, and a reduction in
interest performance

Investigate how communities of exercise motivate individuals and groups to participate in and improve
performance
Including:
what are contemporary forms of exercise?
Contemporary Exercise: exercise that is more personal and reflects the different interests and lives of
individuals. This includes a broader range of activities that focus on fun, challenge and social aspects such as
bouldering or parkrun.
how do contemporary forms of exercise encourage group dynamics, group cohesion, social interaction and a
sense of belonging?
Exercise What is it? How does it increase Implications
motivation?
Wearable fitness Providing a sophisticated • Track performance Improved consistency and
technology and exercise tracker with the • Connect with others progressive overload to
training apps ability to instantly e.g., Strava increase training gains.
process data and have it • Quantitative data to
available for analysis by show improvements
the wearer. • Global competition
HIIT and SIT Varying times of high • Adaptable to different Numerous heath and
intensity work with fitness levels performance benefits such as
alternating rest periods. A • Online or at home increased CV health,
combination of • Minimal equipment stabilised blood glucose and
functional movements. • Time efficient sugar levels, and a reduction
• Groups of visceral fat.
CrossFit It involves varied • Differentiation Increased motivation and
functional movements • Modified for individual consistency. Promotes
completed at high levels functional movements tat are
intensity. E.g., squats, • Effective at helping to used in everyday life. Targets
running, and lifting achieve goals specific areas of fitness.
Outdoor Fitness Permanent outdoor • Variety Increased motivation leads to
Training fitness equipment in • Connection with nature more consistent participation.
parks and on beaches -> • Social interaction Improves endurance and
free to use • Free muscular strength over time.
• More accessible
Stand-Up Person standing on a • Low impact exercise Maintain balance which can
Paddle Boarding large board and using a • Fun be a good core workout.
paddle to move through • Recreational Sustaining centre of gravity
the water • Won’t provoke injury can lead to more
• Spiritual and reflective proprioception and body
awareness.