Introduction to`nuclear physics ´

Introduction to nuclear physics

David Boilley1
Normandy University

M1 physique - SNEAM1
Year 2015-2016

1. GANIL, BP 55027, F-14076 Caen cedex 05, boilley@[Link] tel: 02 31 45 47 81

http ://[Link]/davidboilley
Foreword

This document is the first version of my course notes and contains many typing or other errors. I
please be lenient.
To write it, I used the following works:
-- Luc Valentin, Subatomic Physics: Nuclei and Particles, Hermann (1975)
— Kenneth S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics, John Wiley and Sons (1988)
— Jean-Louis Basdevant, James Rich, and Michel Spiro, Nuclear Energy, the editions of the polytechnic school (2002)
— Bernard Fernandez, From the Atom to the Nucleus: A Historical Approach to Atomic Physics and Physics
nuclear, Ellipses (2006)
The other references, provided throughout this course, are listed in the bibliography at the end. The advice and recommendations
The recommendations of T. Lefort, who conducts the corresponding tutorials, were very useful.

1
 `
Table of contents

1 Generalities on nuclei 4
1.1 Historical Overview 4
1.2 Description of the core 5
1.2.1 Nomenclature 5
1.2.2 Nuclear rayon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. . . .
1.2.3 Unification and order of magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 . . . .

2 Radioactivity 10
2.1 Historical Introduction
2.2 Law of temporal decay
2.2.1 Probability of Disintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Radioactive chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
2.3 Main modes of disintegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Strong interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Weak interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 By electromagnetic interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 Summary
2.3.5 Disintegration schemes - Decay scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Natural radioactivity
2.4.1 The primordial elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
2.4.2 The cosmogenic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
2.5 Dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Carbon-14 dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2 Potassium-40 dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 The age of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Energy 23
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Defect of mass and binding energy.
3.2.1 Definitions
3.2.2 Atomic and nuclear masses
3.2.3 Aston Curve
3.2.4 Energy of nuclear reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5 Mass tables
3.3 Binding energy - Energie de liaison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Chaitin’s principle and least squares method
3.3.2 Bethe-Weizsacker formula
3.3.3 Beta stability
3.3.4 New mass formulas
3.4 The layered model - Shell model .......... 30

2
 `
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3

4 Nuclear reactions 33
4.1 The need for accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 The contribution of Rutherford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 The first nuclear reaction triggered by artificially accelerated particles . . . . . . 34
4.2 Accelerate step by step...
4.2.1 Cyclotrons
4.2.2 Linear Accelerators - linear accelerators (linac) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Reaction theory
4.3.1 Notations
4.3.2 Center of mass frame - Center of mass reference frame . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 Impact parameter - Parame`tre d’impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Cross-sections - Effective sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 With neutrons ...
4.4.2 With charged particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3 With thick targets...
4.4.4 Application: activation
4.5 Some typical reactions
4.5.1 Quantum waves approach
4.5.2 Elastic scattering ................................................................................. 47
4.5.3 Compound-nucleus reactions
4.5.4 Technical requirements for the accelerators

5 Applications 50
5.1 Fission
5.1.1 Fissile nuclei
5.1.2 Description of the fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3 Effectiveness section of fission and chain reaction.
5.1.4 The fuel "cycle" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Nuclear fusion .......................................................................................... 56

A map of the cores 57

Chapter 1

´ ´´
Generalities about nuclei

1.1 Historical Overview

Historically, radioactivity was discovered before the nucleus of the atom. This is understandable, as one must have...
a "probe" to explore the subatomic structure. But for convenience, this course will begin by describing
the nucleus before addressing radioactivity.
The notion of atom is attributed to Leucippus and was developed by Democritus (-470, -370) his student. For them the
Matter is discontinuous and therefore made of emptiness. The smallest particle of matter is called an atom ('which cannot be').
coupe') and is inseparable. This design only arises from the simple speculations of a philosopher who questions about the
matter. It is through Aristotle that this idea was passed on to us as none of his writings have survived. But it was for
to contest it... It was the chemist John Dalton who introduced, in 1803, the notion of the atom, even though atomic theory
it had its supporters and opponents throughout the two millennia that separate the two scholars. Measurement will be necessary
of Avogadro by Jean Perrin at the beginning of the twentieth century to convince the last skeptics. Atoms
[Link]
When J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and hypothesized that it could be a part of the atom, the idea did not
not all of his peers are convinced, some of whom do not believe in atoms. In 1897, Thomson constructs an atomic model and
represent the atom as a 'raisin cake': the raisins are the electrons, the dough is positively charged and the
"cake" is electrically neutral.
At the same time, the discovery of X-rays by Röntgen in 1895 sparked a craze for radiations.
Discovered by Becquerel, the existence of radiation emitted spontaneously by certain bodies led to the couple.
Curie isolated the first radioactive elements and invented the word 'radioactivity'. It was Rutherford who demonstrated the
difference in nature between the α and β radiations that he will use to probe matter.
The discovery of the nucleus of the atom by Rutherford in 1911 was made by bombarding a target with particles.
alpha. It was by measuring the mass of elements using mass spectrometry that Francis Aston discovered isotopes.
in 1919, a term invented by F. Soddy in 1913. The neutron would not be discovered until 1932 by James Chadwick. Irène and
Frédéric Joliot-Curie discovered artificial radioactivity two years later by bombarding a sheet of aluminum.
with alpha particles. When they removed the source, the aluminum foil had become radioactive.
At the same time, quantum and relativistic physics were emerging, which allowed for the refinement of theoretical models of the atom.
and the nucleus. Since then, nuclear physics is conducted with particle accelerators that are used either to probe the nucleus,
Soita produces new elements or isotopes.
Nuclear physics is therefore a young science, for which all scientific writings have been available since the
beginning. One need only refer to figure A.1, which classifies the years of discovery of the nuclei, to be convinced of this. It is
also a science for which many fundamental questions remain open, as the nucleus is a small
quantum system for which the interaction is unknown.

Succinct chronology:
— 1805: Dalton proposes the notion of atom in chemistry.
— 1868: Mendeleev's classification.
— 1895: Discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen. This date marks the birth of microscopic physics.
and because the discovery was a revolution: for the first time one could see inside a living being

4
 ´ ´ ´ ON NUCLEI
CHAPTER 1. GENERALITIES 5

without opening it. Besides the well-known medical applications, this has also sparked popular enthusiasm.
A few months, seeing its skeleton was the great attraction of the major boulevards of all Europe! This new
radiations have also allowed for new scientific developments.
— 1896: Discovery of uranium rays by H. Becquerel.
— 1897: Discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson. The atom is no longer indivisible, but viewed as a pudding.
Electrons are like grapes.
— 1898: M. Curie demonstrates that other bodies are radioactive. Identification of two new radioactive elements.
tifs, Polonium and Radium.
— 1900: E. Rutherford demonstrated the law of radioactive decay.
— 1908: Identification by Geiger and Rutherford of the alpha particle.
— 1911: Discovery of the nucleus by Rutherford. This marks the birth of nuclear physics.
— 1919: First nuclear reaction by Rutherford
— 1928: Theory of the tunnel effect applied to alpha radioactivity by Gamow, Gurney, and Condon.
— 1931: First international conference dedicated to nuclear physics. It took place in Rome.
— 1932: Discovery of the neutron by Chadwick. The structure of the nucleus is finally understood. The neutron, particle
neutral, it is not easy to detect...
1934: Discovery of artificial radioactivity by F. and I. Joliot-Curie.
— 1935: Mass formula by Hans Bethe and Carl Friedrich Weizsäcker.
— 1938: Discovery of fission by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann.
— 1942: First nuclear reactor under the direction of E. Fermi.
— 1944: Explosion of the first atomic bomb.

1.2 Description of the core

1.2.1 Nomenclature
gives what I call "isotopes" or "isotopic elements," because they occupy the same place in the periodic
table. They are chemically identical, and save only as regards the relatively few physical properties which
depend on atomic mass directly, physically identical also", Frederick Soddy (1877-1956), Nature 92, p. 399-
400 (December 4, 1913) [12].

It will doubtless interest readers of Nature to know that other elements besides neon have now been
analyzed in the positive-ray spectrograph [...]. A fact of the greatest theoretical interest appears to underlie
these results, namely, that of more than forty different values of atomic and molecular mass so far measured,
all, without a single exception, fall on whole numbers, carbon and oxygen being taken as 12 and 16 exactly,
and due allowance being made for multiple charges. Should this integer relation prove general, it should do
much to elucidate the ultimate structure of matter."Francis W. Aston (1877-1945), Nature 104, p. 393 (1919)
[12]
The nucleus, around which the electrons orbit, has a size on the order of the femtometer: 1 fm = 10−15It is
It is about 100,000 times smaller than the atom. It practically concentrates all the mass of the atom.
Nuclei are made up of many particles, but for their static properties such as their identification
or their mass, we can only consider protons, positively charged and neutrons, neutral. The charge of the proton
It is opposed to that of the electron. Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons. They are made up of quarks.
we will not deal with that here. Protons repel each other through Coulomb interaction, it is the strong interaction that ensures
the cohesion of the nucleus. It is also a quantum system and the protons and neutrons are distributed in layers
[Link]
An atom that is globally neutral, the number of protons is the same as the number of electrons around the nucleus.
The charge of the nucleus is therefore very important, as it is what gives the element its chemical properties and thus its
Name. The number of neutrons, however, does not change the chemical properties of the element. By convention, the nuclei
are rated according to the following nomenclature:
A N
ZX , (1.1)
X is the symbol of the element, Z is the charge, N is the number of neutrons and A = N + Z is its mass number. Examples:
12 C6 , 238 U146you 235U143Thus, the proton can also be noted as H.
1
6 92 92 1
 ´ ´ ´ ON NUCLEI
CHAPTER 1. GENERALITIES 6

Two nuclei that have the same charge but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes. They can have
of different physical properties: for example, the612 C6is stable, while the614 C8it is not, it is radioactive.
Nuclei are classified according to a Segre diagram, where the number of neutrons is plotted on the x-axis.
In ordered form, the number of protons. See figure 1.1. Stable nuclei form a line parallel to N=Z for the
small nuclei, then which tends to enrich itself in neutrons as we move towards heavy nuclei. On either side of this line,
The nuclei are not stable. They will transform into stable nuclei by emitting particles: this is radioactivity.

Figure 1.1 – Modern version of the NZ diagram by Emilio Segrè. Figure found online.

In addition to the nuclei that exist on Earth, fundamental research and the nuclear industry have produced a large
quantity of so-called 'exotic' nuclei which are mostly radioactive. But it is known that the total number of nuclei is
The 2012 table contains data on 3,350 cores. Estimates predict between 5,000 and 7,000 cores.
One of the major research themes currently in nuclear physics is to explore the limits of the NZ diagram.
and the properties of exotic nuclei to understand why there is only a finite number of nuclei.

1.2.2 Nuclear Ray

Thanks to his celebrated experience which consisted of bombarding a sheet of gold with alpha particles, Rutherford was able to
highlight the existence of a nucleus at the center of the atom and provide an initial estimate of its radius. This led to
it mainly allowed to conclude that the nucleus is not point-like, but has a dimension.
The determination of the radius of a nucleus is complex and depends on the type of experiment implemented. With particles
Charged particles are sensitive to the charge radius. If we use alpha particles, they will interact via the strong interaction.
and the electromagnetic interaction. However, if one chooses electrons, only this last one comes into play, which is more
simple.
To see the nucleus, the wavelength of the projected particle must be on the same order of magnitude as its size.
of the nucleus. The de Broglie relation,
h h
λ= = √ , (1.2)
p 2mE
shows that the smaller the observed object is, the higher the energy must be. With alpha particles of 5 MeV, one obtains
a wavelength on the order of the fermi. But with these electrons, which have a mass 8000 times weaker, it takes a
 ´ ´ ´ ON CORES
CHAPTER 1. GENERALITIES 7

greater energy, which becomes relativistic. The relationship between energy and momentum then becomes

E 2=m2 c4+p2 c2 . (1.3)

The mass of an electron, mc2=0.511 MeV, being small compared to the total energy, we deduce that E'pc. The length
the corresponding de Broglie wavelength then becomes
h hc
λ= = . (1.4)
p E
To achieve a wavelength on the order of the fermi, electrons of approximately 200 MeV are needed. Such beams do not have
h1ten9oavbei5nyla0is.
I will not go into the details of measuring the charge radius of a nucleus with deselectrons or other particles.
charged because it involves relativistic elastic collisions, diffraction... as can be seen in the figure
1.2.

Figure 1.2 - Figure extracted from [2].

By then conducting a systematic study, one can deduce the distribution of charges in the nuclei. It follows that
that the nucleus is not a hard ball, but a diffuse edge, see figure 1.3.
The analysis of a large number of nuclei, excluding the lighter ones, has shown that the charge density has
an approximate expression of the type
ρ0
ρ(r) = 1.5
r−Rc ,
1+exp0,228a
aveca=2,2 fm,Rc=r0 A1/3etr0 =1,1 fm.
 ´ ´ INFORMATION
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL ´ ABOUT NUCLEI 8

Figure 1.3 - Charge density of some nuclei. Figure extracted from [1].

What about mass density? Is it similar to charge density? Many experimental results
they suggest. There is diffusion by neutrons, for example. There is especially the fact that a nuclear ray, such as
finds, intervenes in the interpretation of very varied experimental facts.
Several interesting points appear in this result. First of all, the average radiuscis proportional to A1/3 , this
which means that the volume is proportional to A. It's as if each nucleon has its own volume that we add together.
as it measures the addition of nucleons. In other words, the nuclear density is the same for all nuclei,
like for an incompressible liquid.
The number of nucleons per unit volume, n,0 perhaps easily determined,
4
A'πRc3 n0 . (1.6)
3

We deduce that00.17 fm−3 In other words, each nucleon occupies a volume of 6 fm.3 One can also deduce
also the density, which is very high, on the order of 2.8×1017kg/m3 .
By colliding higher energy nuclei, one can also study the compressibility of nuclei.
It appears that they are very incompressible, like liquids. These properties lead to seeing the nuclei as
liquid droplets are going to talk about nuclear matter. It is this same nuclear matter that constitutes the core of supernovae.
and neutron stars [3].
The nuclear skin has a uniform thickness for all nuclei. But beware, some nuclei very rich in
Neutrons have a very surprising structure. This is the case, for example, with lithium 11 which is the first discovered example.
in 1985 by Isao Tanihata and his collaborators. It contains a core made up of three protons and six neutrons surrounded by a
the halo of two neutrons. The spatial extent of this halo is between five and ten times greater than the size of the core, depending on
 ´ ´
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL ´
INFORMATION ON NUCLEI 9

cases. In the case of lithium 11, the size of the halo is similar to that of lead 208. The neutrons of the halo have an energy
very weak liaison.
The idea of the halo is due to P.G. Hansen and B. Jonson, two years after the discovery of the abnormal size of lithium 11.
It has been confirmed since by numerous experiments. One of the methods used is collision against nuclei.
targets. The core of the nucleus is excited during the collision with the target, while the halo continues its path undisturbed,
with, in particular, the same very tight speed distribution they had in the core.
Only lithium 6 and 7 exist on Earth. Lithium 10 does not exist, whereas lithium 9 does exist. If we return to
Lithium 11, we call this a Borromean system because none of the possible pairs of constituents is stable: neither lithium
10, neither di-neutrons exist. The word borromean comes from the Borromean rings, named after the islands on Lake Maggiore.
Italie, quie´taient unies et ne pouvaient pas tenir en se se´[Link] la figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 - Borromean rings. Figure taken from Wikipedia.

Other very exotic light nuclei also have a halo. Beryllium-11 has a halo made up of a single neutron.
Beryllium 12 has a halo made up of two neutrons. See figure 1.5. For these nuclei with an exotic structure, the
previous results apply only to the core, not to the entire nucleus.

Figure 1.5 – Examples of halo nuclei. Figure extracted from[Link]

1.2.3 Units and order of magnitude

- Nuclear dimensions are expressed in femtometers or fermi: 1 fm = 10−15m.
The time of a nuclear reaction is on the order of the zeptosecond: 1 zs = 10−21s. For radioactivity, some
very different times are observed.
The energies involved are on the order of MeV: 1 MeV = 1.6 × 10−13J.
Chapter 2

Radioactivity´

We wrap a photographic plate Lumière, with gelatino-bromide, with two sheets of paper.
black very thick, so that the plate does not warp due to exposure to the Sun during a day.
We place a plate of phosphorescent substance outside on the sheet of paper, and we ex-
expose it all to the Sun for several hours. When the photographic plate is then developed, one
acknowledges that the silhouette of the substance appears in black on the photo. If one places between the substance
phosphorescent and the paper a coin, or a metallic screen pierced with a drawing during the day, we see
the image of these two objects appears in the snapshot.
It must therefore be concluded from these experiments that the phosphorescent substance in question produces
radiations that pass through opaque paper to light and reduce silver salts.” Henri Becquerel,
On the radiations emitted by phosphorescence, Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences 122, 420-421
(1896)
Finally, we obtained a substance whose activity is 400 times greater than that of uranium.
nium. We therefore believe that the substance we have extracted from the pitchblende contains a non-metal.
core signal, neighbor of bismuth due to its analytical properties. If the existence of this new metal is confirmed,
we propose to call it polonium, after the country of origin of one of us.
Pierre and Marie Curie, On a new radioactive substance contained in pitchblende, Proceedings
from the Academy of Sciences, pages 175-178, session of July 18, 1898.

2.1 Historical Introduction

Intrigued by the X-rays discovered by Röntgen in 1895, Henri Becquerel suspects a phenomenon of luminescence.
To verify it, he wraps a photographic plate in black paper to protect it from light and
expose different substances that fluoresce in the sun. Among them, uranium salts that veil the photographic plate.
phique. This phenomenon is observable even in the dark. After elimination, Becquerel concluded 'that the effect was due to the
presence of uranium in these salts. Completely new fact, unlike X-rays, these new "rays" are
sponateoeuym
eslbdtuyatnruim
C
[Link]
em
ycrM
dilsskl,C
isthbneridsctgaoeriuvred
then other bodies that they called radioactive are named polonium and radium.
In nature, the three main modes of disintegration observed, historically called α, β, and γ, whose rays-
Events are distinguished by their interaction with matter. It was E. Rutherford who first characterized the radiations.
αetβ, after having separated thanks to a magnetic field.
An unstable nucleus, called 'father', disintegrates into a nucleus called 'son' by emitting one or more particles. In
In English, we say 'mother' and 'daughter' nuclei. During this nuclear reaction, the number of charges and nucleons is
conserve

10
 CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 11

Figure 2.1 - Evidence provided by E. Rutherford of the law of exponential decay in a radioactive substance emitted
from Thorium compounds, Philosophical Magazine, January 1900, ser. 5, XLIX, p. 1.

2.2 Law of temporal decay

2.2.1 Probability of Disintegration
It is impossible to predict when a radioactive nucleus will decay. On the other hand, for a large number of nuclei
identical, N, it is observed that on average, the number of nuclei that disintegrate during a time δtest is proportional
T
N
ànuhs.m
δàihentaouenqistm
houbeniafgevdstlrunpeiosbupeficrlead−δN
wh,eavm
ehatem
y,lcaliat

-δN=λNδt (2.1)

is a proportionality constant defined experimentally which has the inverse dimension of a time. By integration,
It can be concluded that the average number of radioactive nuclei follows an exponential radioactive decay law.

N(t) = N(0)e −λt. (2.2)

This equation should be understood as a probability. Indeed, the number of nuclei is an integer.
cannot exactly follow an exponential law. If we consider two identical sets of N(0) kernels each, the
The observed number of nuclei will not be identical for each set. The discrepancies between the two series are due to
to fluctuations. The number N(t) of equation (2.2) above corresponds to the average over a large number of ensembles
initially identical.
In all rigor, it should rather be written
N̄(t)=N(0)e -λt . (2.3)
The actual number of nuclei that remain, N, depends on the sample and therefore cannot be predicted. On the other hand, it satisfies
havteagw
hlreinN
P
taxyhcouT
ela,htm
[Link],hatieort
¯
vautNest
¯ N̄N −N̄
P(N|N)= e . (2.4)
N!
The shape of the Poisson distribution function is shown in figure 2.2 for small numbers N. If N¯> 10,¯it is almost
√ ¯
a Gaussian with a standard deviation equal to N.
 CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 12

Figure 2.2 - Poisson Distribution. Figure found on the Internet.

This random character of the disintegration of a single atom, discovered before the birth of quantum physics, has
I have accepted bad treatment. It is a fact, nowadays.
The time constant τ = 1/λ is a very important quantity that determines how quickly the
nuclei will disintegrate. It represents the average lifespan. Generally, in the tables, one finds another
grandeur, the half-life1/2which is defined as the time required for half of the nuclei to have disintegrated:
N(t 1/2 )=N(0)/2. It follows easily that

t1/2=τln 2=ln 2/λ. (2.5)

t1/2can range from a few microseconds to millions of years depending on the radioactive element considered. See the figure
A.2.
The term 'activity' refers to the number of disintegrations per unit of time.
dN N ln 2
A=− =λN= = N. (2.6)
dt τ t1/2

The unit of the SI is the becquerel and 1 Bq corresponds to one disintegration per second. The old unit, the curie, corresponds
the activity of one gram of radium: 1 Ci = 37×109The activity being proportional to the number of radionuclides, it
is often used to quantify this element. Thus, in a sample, one might say that it has xBq of137Cs.
The activity also decreases exponentially over time,

A(t) = A(0)e−λt . (2.7)

Finally, the activity only gives the number of disintegrations per second and tells us nothing about the radiations.
nauhnerm
tdieM
em
se,[Link]
ieorvh,earvw
asunelm
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[Link]
In this case, it can also be radioactive.
CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 13

2.2.2 Chains radioactives

Bateman equations
It is Harry Bateman who solved the problem for a radioactive chain using for the first time the trans-
Laplace form to solve a system of differential equations. When the chain is short, and we limit ourselves to
Ron icia` two links, the equations can also be solved in a more classical way.
Suppose a nucleus X decays into a nucleus Y with a time constant of 1/λ.1 The core disintegrates
then in a nucleus with a time constant of 1/λ2 The average populationsXetNYsatisfy the equations
the following differentials:
dN X
=−λ 1 NX , (2.8)
dt
dNY
=−λ 2 NY+λ1 NX . (2.9)
dt
The populationYdecreases due to radioactive decay but is also fueled by the decay of the parent nucleus. In
assuming that at the initial moment t=0, there is only N0nuclei, populations are easily written as a function of time,

NX (t)=N0 e−λ t 1
, (2.10)
1 2
NY (t)=N0 λ1 e−λ t−e−λ t . (2.11)
λ2−λ1
We suppose here that λ1,λ2 .
With longer disintegration chains, the delay of the last solution in the following differential equation
It complicates the calculations. By using the Laplace transform, the calculation is simpler. The general solution, found by H.
Bateman, bears his name (H. Bateman, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc.16, 423 (1910)).
With different time scales for the decay constants, λ1etλ2 , several cases are
interesting.

Short times - long times

Sit1=1/λ1 τ2=1/λ2 , this means ifλ1 λ2 the population will disappear quickly to give rise to growth
quickly, then decrease slowly, as if it were alone:
NY (t)'N0 e−λ t 2
, (2.12)
for sufficiently long times (λ1 t 1).
For short times (λ1 t1), one can neglect the activity of the son,
NY (t)'N0 (1−e−λ t ). 1
(2.13)
This is the case, for example, with americium 241 contained in smoke detectors. It disintegrates into neptunium 237.
with a half-life of 432.2 years. Neptunium has a half-life of 2.1 million years and its activity is therefore
negligible compared to that of his father.

Secular balance

In the reverse case of `τ1=1/λ1 τ2=1/λ2 this means síλ1 λ2 the population would gradually disappear
that is created by the shrinkage of the core. It is then said that the daughter nucleus is in secular equilibrium with the parent nucleus.

NX (t)=N0 e−λ t 1
, (2.14)
λ1
NY (t)' N0 e−λ1t , (2.15)
λ2
for sufficiently long times (λ1 Generally, it is said that this equilibrium is achieved after ten periods.
t1/2 The activity of the nucleus son, AY=λ2 NYthis galea cell of the core father, AX=λ1 NX(equation (2.15)).
Let's take the case of Ruthenium,106Artificial element that disintegrates by emission in Rhodium106Rh
with a half-life of 273 days. Rhodium then disintegrates with a half-life of 30 s. It is therefore in equilibrium.
with the parent nucleus and we then speak of the Ru-Rh couple whose activity is twice as important as that of Ruthenium
alone.
CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 14

Transitional regime: the technetium cow

Technetium is the lightest element that has no stable isotope. Its name comes from the Greek 'technetos' which means
Artificial: it was the first chemical element produced artificially in 1937. Dmitri Mendeleev, who noticed a
gap in its classification, called this element 43 ekamangane`se and predicted several of its properties.
According to Wikipedia, in 1877, the Russian chemist Serge Kern reported having found the missing element in an alloy.
metallic. Kern named what he thought to be the new element davyum in honor of the English chemist Sir Humphry.
Davy, but it turned out to be a mixture of iridium, rhodium, and iron. Another candidate, lucium, followed in 1896 but was
then determined as being yttrium. In 1908, the Japanese chemist Masataka Ogawa believed he found evidence of the
the presence of element 43 in a thorium ore. Ogawa named this element nipponium. Further examinations
showed the presence of rhenium in Ogawa's photographic plates, but not that of element 43.
In 1925, Walter Noddack, Otto Berg, and Ida Tacke (who became Mrs. Noddack) announced that they had fabricated this element.
to which they gave the name of masurium, but they did not succeed in renewing the experience. They bombarded it with
ferrocolumbite with deselectrons and deduced the presence of element 43 by examining the X-ray spectrum. The
experimenters of that time were unable to replicate this experiment, which was considered erroneous.
The discovery of technetium is attributed to Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segrè, who isolated isotope 97 in 1937.
Technetium-99 is used in medicine. It has a half-life of 6 hours. It is obtained from the decay of molybdenum-
99 which is produced in a laboratory. It has a half-life of 67 hours. The temporal evolution of the number of the activity of
each nucleus is represented in figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 - Temporal evolution of molybdenum and technetium activity.

Thus, technetium is extracted from the solution, called technetium cow, when it has reached
the balance with his father. His activity falls back to zero (or almost), and the next session takes place after having again
achieves balance.

2.3 Main modes of disintegration

There are several modes of disintegration found in nature. Man-made nuclei have created some of them.
to appear anew. Different modes of disintegration can be classified based on the fundamental interaction.
who dominates the process. Nowadays, this radioactivity is still the subject of research because it is one of the means of
test these interactions.
CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 15

2.3.1 Strong interaction between particles

Alpha radioactivity
The drowning a helium nucleus:
A A−4 4
Z X→ Z−2 Y+He.
2 (2.16)
Radionuclides are heavy nuclei, having an atomic number greater than 82. The laws of conservation allow for
determine exactly the energy of the emitted alpha particle. We will come back to this. Conversely, the measurement of this energy
often allows identifying the sender.
Radium, which is the first radioactive element identified by Marie Curie, disintegrates thus to give radon:
226Ra222Rn+He 4
(2.17)
with a half-life of 1,600 years. The alpha particle has an energy of 4.8 MeV.

Radioactivity
The noyau emits a proton. It is a rare phenomenon that involves exotic nuclei. This is the case, for example, of the
thulium-147147Tm) and of lutetium-151 (151Lu).

Spontaneous fission
The nucleus splits into two fragments accompanied by neutrons. This only concerns the most
heavy and explains that the total number of chemical elements is finite. The reaction is often accompanied by the emission of
neutrons.
This is the case of fermium-256.256Fm), with a half-life of 2.6 hours or californium-254 ( 254Cf) with a half-
life of 60.5 days.

2.3.2 Weak interaction pair

Beta radioactivity
The drowning of an electron (β− ) and an anti-neutrino,
A A −
Z X→Z+1 Y+e +ν¯e , (2.18)
or a positron and a neutrino (β+ )
A A +
Z X→Z−1 Y+e +νe . (2.19)
Only the β radioactivity− exists
in nature. The two emitted particles do not share the energy of the reaction.
in a unique way. Thus, measuring the energy of the electron, or the positron, does not allow for identification of the emitter.
An example of well-known beta decay, carbon-14,
14 C→14 N+e− +ν¯ , (2.20)
e

with a half-life of 5734±40 years.

Certain transmitters+ are used for positron emission tomography. Carbon-11, oxygen-15 or
Fluor-18, for example, is obtained by bombarding a beam of protons or deuterons accelerated by a cyclotron.
Radioactive atoms are inserted into biomedical molecules that will be injected into the patient. The detection of
Two photons in coincidence allow to locate the place where the radioelement has disintegrated and thus enable imaging.
medical.

Electronic capture (EC)

An electron from the atomic shell interacts with the nucleus and a neutrino is emitted:
A
A − (2.21)
Z X+e → Z−1 Y+ν e .
The produced neutrinos are monochromatic.
Example, beryllium-7:
7
7 Be+e− Li + νe . (2.22)
CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 16

2.3.3 Through electromagnetic interaction

Gamma radioactivity
An excited nucleus, often at the end of one of the other disintegrations, descends into its ground state by emitting
a photon. The nature of the nucleus does not change. Gamma emission often accompanies other types of radiation.
quasi-instantaneously. The half-life is generally less than 10−19So we only count one disintegration,
with the emission of several particles.
But sometimes, the half-life can be much longer. We then talk about isomeric states or isomers, and we
count this disintegration separately. This is the case, for example, of metastable money-110, which is distinguished from
the money-110 stable by adding a little m: 110m Ag and which has a half-life of 249 days. This is also the case of technetium-
99m99m Tc, used in medicine.
The boundary between these two cases is not well defined.

Internal conversion
The gamma photon can eject an electron from the electronic shell. Therefore, it is an electron that is observed.
same energy, without associated neutrino. As previously, the nucleus does not change.

2.3.4 Summary
The dominant modes of disintegration are classified on the nuclear map, figure A.3. The β disintegration− master
for neutron-rich nuclei and beta+ for the poor in neutrons. The emission of protons or neutrons is reserved
to the most exotic nuclei, near the drip line. Disintegration and spontaneous fission concern the nuclei
heavier.

2.3.5 Disintegration Schemes - Decay Scheme

Most radioactive nuclei have several possible modes of decay. Their descendants can also
to have multiple modes of disintegration. This is generally represented in the form of diagrams with trees
rescences.

Branching Ratios
Let’s consider the case of a nucleus that can disintegrate into two nuclei, Y and Z. To each mode, we associate a
decay constant, λ1etλ2 . If we note NXthe number of nuclei X, for a time dt, there is λ1 NX dtnoyaux
Xqui transforms into Yetλ1 NX dtenZ. Thus,
dN X
=−(λ1+λ2 )NX . (2.23)
dt
One can easily generalize more decay channels. The total disintegration constant is therefore the sum
partial decay constants, λt=λ1+λ2 , in the previous example.
For a while, on λt NX decreasing elements, there are1 NX which are transformed into Y. The proportion of
nuclei that disintegrate in is therefore
λ1 NX dtλ1 λ1
= = . (2.24)
λt NX dt λt λ1+λ2
This report is called branching ratio report.
For example, the disintegration of radon-221 has two branches, one alpha with a constant λ.α 1.02×10−4s−1and
a beta with a constant λβ 3.60 × 10−4s−1 The half-life of radon is therefore
ln 2
t1/2 = 25 min (2.25)
λα +λβ
and the branch ratios are worth,
λα =22% λα =78%.
and (2.26)
λt λt
CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 17

partial half-lives
From the previous example, we can define partial half-lives,
ln 2 ln 2
t1/2,α = 6800 seconds equals 1 hour and 53 minutes.
and t1/2,β = =1 930 s=32 min. (2.27)
λα λβ
The larger the partial half-life, the lower the corresponding branching ratio. But beware, the activity
radon is defined by the overall half-life, which can be obtained
1 1 1
= + . (2.28)
t1/2t1/2,α t1/2,β
Partial half-lives are not very useful.

Decay schemes
The obtained daughter nuclei can in turn decay, often via gamma emission, complicating the scheme all the more.
of disintegration.
Figure 2.4 shows diagrams of the disintegration of some common nuclei used in labs.

Figure 2.4 – Schemes of disintegration of two common nuclei.

The modes of disintegration are also indicated in the core chart. Figure 2.5 presents a zoom on the region.
the polonium.

2.4 Natural Radioactivity

In nature, we find several types of radioactive elements. There are primordial elements that are present.
since the formation of the Earth. At that time, there were many more radioactive elements on Earth, but they have
disappeared due to their short lifespan.
There are other radioactive elements created by cosmic radiation that bombards the Earth. They are called the
cosmogenics.
And then Man also created radioactive cores, some of which have been dispersed in the environment during the
atmospheric nuclear tests or serious accidents like that of Chernobyl. There is in particular cesium-137, which
with a half-life of 30 years, or, to a lesser extent, strontium-90, with a period of 28 years. There are also several
isotopes of plutonium. Locally, the emissions from nuclear facilities can also impact the environment.

2.4.1 The primordial elements

At the time of its formation, the Earth was very radioactive, but since then most of the primordial elements have...
Radioactive elements remain. There are four families of radioactive elements that persist due to the very long half-life of the element.
at the beginning of the chain.
CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 18

Figure 2.5 – Zoom on the polonium area of the Karlsruhe nucleus map.

Potassium-40, for example, has a half-life of 1.3×10 9and transforms into argon 40 by β−γ decay.
Due to its chemistry, potassium is present in all living organisms, sediments,... with concentrations of
the order of a few tens to a few hundred becquerels per kilogram. A human has about 4,000.
5,000 Bq in the body.

Table 2.1 – Decay chain of uranium 238.

Element half-life radiation
Uranium 238 4,468 109a α
Thorium 234 24.10 j β−
Protactinium 234 6.70 h β−
Uranium 234 245 500 a α
Thorium 230 75 380 a α
Radium 226 1600 a α
Radon 222 3.82 j α
Polonium 218 3.10 minutes α
Lead 214 26.8 min β−
Bismuth 214 19.9 min β−
Polonium 214 164.3µs α
Lead 210 22.3 a β−
Bismuth 210 5,013 j β−
Polonium 210 138.4 j α
Lead 206 stable

Consider the case of uranium 238, which represents 99.3% of the uranium present in nature, and its descendants.
The periods of the main chain are given in Table 2.1. The radioactive period of all the descendants is
small compared to that of uranium-238 and compared to the age of the Earth. Consequently, in nature, all the
descendants are in a secular balance with the first link of the chain. The activity of the chain is therefore 14 times that
of uranium. But since radon is a rare gas, it can diffuse and the balance may be partially disrupted locally.
If uranium is extracted, the chain is broken, but the balance is quickly restored with thorium and protactinium.
nium. In the first approximation, we can assume that the chain stops here. The activity of depleted uranium (constituted
essentially uranium 238) is therefore multiplied by three compared to that of uranium alone.
In nature, there are two other chains of radioactive decay, the first element of which is uranium-235, which
CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 19

with a half-life of 0.7 billion years and 11 descendants, and thorium-232, which has a half-life of 14 billion years
and 10 descendants.

2.4.2 The cosmogenic

The mass 14 isotope of carbon is a cosmonuclide, meaning an isotope formed by the interaction of radiation.
cosmic particles with terrestrial elements. These are neutrons that, colliding with nitrogen atoms14 N
give rise to the isotope14C
14 N+n→C+p. 14
(2.29)
The maximum formation rate occurs at altitudes of around 15 to 20 km, in the lower stratosphere. Carbon is
greater than CO2and then enters the carbon cycle. The atoms of14Radioactive bones and return to the state of14 N
with a half-life of 5730 years,
14 −
14C→N+e +ν¯e . (2.30)
The 7Be and10They are also cosmonucleoids formed under the same conditions as the14C, but carbon has
the advantage of being present in a wide variety of samples. Beryllium-10 has a half-life of 1.51 million years
and it disintegrates into Bore beta emission, while beryllium-7 has a half-life of 53.22 days. the latter produces
7 The electronic capture.

Underground, in the deep layers, Chlorine-36 is mainly obtained from Calcium-40 through the reaction
next :
40 Ca+µ− → 40 K∗ → 36 Cl+α, (2.31)
you− is a muon. In the atmosphere, other reactions predominate.

2.5 Dating
A law of radioactive decay is generally of the form N(t)=N0 e−λt To use it for dating, it is necessary to
so knowing λ, which is found in the tables, determine N(t) by the measure, the correspondence now, and find
a way to determine N0which is not known. This is the most complex part and it varies depending on the
radioelements used.
Furthermore, however1/2 the difference between N(t) and N0risk of being of the same order as the experimental uncertainties
and it will therefore be impossible to determine age. Conversely, as soon as1/2 N(t) will be very small and difficult to measure.
Thus, the ages that can be determined by this method are of the same order of magnitude as1/2 .

2.5.1 The carbon-14 dating

The natural radioactivity of CO2The carbon-14 content is approximately 14 disintegrations per minute per gram of.
carbon, that is to say that the isotopic ratio14C/12It is of the order 1.2×10−12 .
The isotopic ratio in living matter is the same as long as it exchanges carbon with the atmosphere. When
cessation changes stop, this report naturally decreases due to radioactive disintegration of the14C. By measuring the ratio
isotopic, it is then possible to go back to the date at which the organic matter ceased its exchanges. Carbon 14
is also formed in nuclear reactors and is present in the discharges from nuclear facilities.
It was at the end of the 1940s that Willard Libby and his team at the University of Chicago developed the method.
carbon-14 dating. This discovery earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960. The measurement was then made from
of the activity of the sampled specimen and the method tested on samples from prehistoric Egypt that were
perfectly dated (see figure 2.6). Currently, the isotopic ratio is measured by mass spectrometry, which
allows for much more precise results with smaller samples.
In 1958, physicist Hessel De Vries highlighted a systematic bias between the ages determined by dating.
to the14 And the real readings. The cause is the variation of the ratio.14 C/12 C in the atmosphere over time that is linked
essentially two physical phenomena. The fastest variations (a few centuries) are due to variations
of solar activity. The long-term trend can be explained by the evolution of the intensity of the magnetic field.
terrestrial. The age obtained by dating must therefore be corrected with the help of tables to obtain the true age.
Be careful with the carbon half-life. At the time of Libby and for about ten years, it was 5,568 years.
It has been revalued for 5,730 years. This means that the ages determined by the past were incorrect, with a
CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 20

Figure 2.6 - 'The curve of knowns' according to Libby and Arnold, published in Science in 1949.

3% error. However, for the datings, it is still customary to use the value assessed in 1951 in order to
maintain coherence with the values and tables of the past. The result is expressed in conventional years or in
carbon years that need to be corrected to obtain real years.

2.5.2 The potassium-40 dating

Potassium-40 can decay in two ways. The first transformation yields calcium-40 through decay.
β,
40
40 K→Ca+e − +ν¯ ,
e (2.32)
with a decay constant λβ 4.96×10−10an−1 Butpotassium-40 can also produce argon-40.
by electronic capture, accompanied by the emission of a gamma photon,
40
40 K+e− Ar+γ+ν
e,
(2.33)
with the decay constant λ =0.58×10−10an−1 .
For a whileβ NK Potassium 40 decays into Calcium and λ NK ten argon. Thus, the
The average number of potassium-40 nuclei satisfies the following differential equation:
dN K
=−(λβ +λ )NK , (2.34)
dt
which integrates easilyK (t)=NK0e−(λ +λ )t The half-life
β of potassium-40 is thus1/2 =ln 2/(λβ + λ =1.25×1010
ans.
Unlike the14C whose concentration is approximately constant over its ages, is not known
initial content in40K. During a volcanic eruption, for example, the lava releases gas and therefore no longer contains argon. A
Once the rock has solidified, argon is trapped. By measuring the amount of potassium-40 present and that of argon, it is then
It is possible to know the age of the rock. It is not possible with calcium as it can be present from the start.
For a while, it was formed NK argon atoms. Thus,
dN Ar
=λ NK , (2.35)
dt
CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 21

which gives by integration,

λ
NAr (t)= NK01−e−(λ +λ )tβ . (2.36)
λ +λβ
As the initial number of Potassium-40 nuclei is not known, we can introduce the current number to obtain
finally,
λ
NAr (t)= (λ +λ )t β-1. (2.37)
λ +λβ NK t
By inverting this equation, we obtain the age of the rock from the average contents of argon and potassium 40 nuclei.

1 λ +λβ NAr
t= ln "1 + #. (2.38)
λ +λβ λ NK

Digital application: The age of a sample of obsidian, in which it is noted that the Argon cores are 2.5 times
less numerous than the nuclei of Potassium 40, is thus 2.8 billion years.
For corals, it is uranium 238 that is used. Indeed, as long as they are alive, corals absorb uranium.
but not thorium. Uranium is thus separated from its secular descendants. At the death of the corals, the first three
links are quickly equilibriated over the centuries and it is the amount of thorium 230 that allows for estimating the quantity
of uranium 238 that has decayed and thus the age of the corals.

2.6 The Age of the Earth

This is inspired by the book by Hubert Krivine.

For Aristotle, the Earth has always existed. Buridan shared this view. Much later, Kepler and Newton...
determined that the date of the world's creation is respectively 3993 and 3998 BC. For this, they based themselves on
the bible. In the second half of the 17th century, some geologists estimated that the sedimentation time was very
long and that the Earth must be much older. They arrived hundreds of millions of years with the stratigraphy,
without being able to give an age.
The first attempt at a scientific determination of the age of the Earth is attributed to Buffon, who used calorimetry.
rime trie. Assuming that the initial planet was made up of molten rocks that cooled to form the Earth
currently, it reaches an age of around 74,000 years. To do this, it studied the cooling of cannonballs of sizes
and varied compositions and extrapolated to Earth. As it was much of what is indicated in the Bible, it has been
sum to retract.
William Thomson, who would become Lord Kelvin, gives, by a similar method, a range of 20 - 400 million.
years in 1862, then 20 - 40 million in 1897. Lord Kelvin's calculation, based on Fourier's equation and detailed in
Reference [10] has long been authoritative. However, Charles Darwin refuted this result, too brief to explain.
the evolution of species and fossils, without giving any precise figures. He has speculated that a source of heat
invalidated the physicist's calculation and proposed the solar magnetic field. Ludwig Boltzmann sided with Darwin.
The discovery of radioactivity will reshuffle the cards. In 1903, Pierre Curie, Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy
highlight the release of heat associated with alpha radioactivity. Shortly after, John Joly suggests that the
Radioactive elements, present everywhere, constitute a source of heat that Kelvin could not have known. It should be noted that
Kelvin had made another mistake by assuming the Earth was rigid and neglecting convection. This second factor is
dominant.
Currently, the Earth dissipates a power of 4.6×1013W, 80% would come from radioactivity. Given that
the surface of the planet, which is 5×1014m2 , the resulting geothermal flux is only 0.1 W/m2 , what is weak by
report the average contribution of the Sun which is 343 W/m2 .
Radioactivity has also been used to date rocks, as we have seen. In 1905, B.B. Boltwood noted that the ratio
Pb/U is all the higher as the rock is old, and in 1907, he proposed a range from 410 million to 2.2 billion.
years for the age of the Earth.
The best determination of the age of the Earth is currently 4.55±0.05 billion years, although it has not been
never found rock as old on Earth. The oldest terrestrial rocks, which are estimated to be about
3.96 billion years, were found in 1986 near Great Slave Lake, Canada. This determination of the age of
The Earth is due to Clair Patterson, an American geochemist, who used uranium-lead dating methods on some
CHAPTER 2. RADIOACTIVITY´ 22

lunar fragments and meteorites that are believed to be remnants from the formation of the solar system. See also
[9].
H. Krivine concludes by saying that the age of 4.55 billion years is not just another number in the series.
[...] Only this timescale makes it intelligible to establish the order of the solar system and its complexity.
fantastic living.
 Chapter 3

Energy

3.1 Introduction
By teaching us that there are vast reserves imprisoned in ordinary common matter
energy, which only our ignorance currently prevents us from using for the needs of life,
Radioactivity is an event that, one can say with certainty, will mark an era in the history of
Thought. Frederick Soddy, The Radium, Félix Alcan Publishing, 1924, French translation of the third edition
The Interpretation of radium, whose first edition dates back to 1909.
The energy released by radioactivity surprised physicists and very quickly led to speculations about its potential use.
This energy struck the imagination. From 1914, H.G. Wells, inspired by The Interpretation of Radium by Frederick
Soddy (1909) published The World Set Free, a science fiction novel where the great powers devastated each other.
atomic bombs1 .
Francis Aston dedicated a great part of his research work to the measurement of the masses of elements and to measuring
the mass defect of many nuclei, interpreted as energy thanks to Einstein's famous formula. Irene
Curie and P. Savitch, followed by O. Hahn and F. Straßmann, highlighted new types of reactions that were later
it was interpreted by Lise Meitner and O.R. Frisch as nuclear fission in 1939. The possibility of a nuclear reaction
The same year, it will be patented by F. Joliot and the first nuclear pile will diverge in Chicago in December 1942.
Fusion was discovered by E. Rutherford in 1934, but it did not find any other applications than the H-bomb.
causes difficulties in starting and then controlling the reaction.

3.2 Defect of mass and binding energy

3.2.1 Definitions
The mass of the ions measured by mass spectrometry is practically proportional to the mass number A, but
Slightly less than the sum of the masses of the nucleons constituting it. This led to the definition of a unit of mass.
atomic, in such a way that the mass of a carbon-12 atom is exactly 12 u. The molar mass of the
Carbon-12 has an exact atomic mass of 12 g/mol, establishing a link between the atomic mass unit and Avogadro's number.A:

12g = NA m=N
12 C A 12u. (3.1)

Thus,
1u=1g/NA1,660,538,921 × 10−27kg = 931.494 MeV/c2 , (3.2)
In the first approximation, A. The number of nucleons, A, is also called the mass number. More precisely, the
the proton and the neutron have masses respectivelyn =1,008 664 904uetmp =1,007,276,466 which are superior
H
[Link]
etxnlofairm
ext4am
-shp,a4oesdc,pet:lsa=040.15a1nudanruim2o-c3lse5, 4 He

of 235 :m 235 U =234,9935u.

According to Sven Lindqvist, Now you are dead, The feathered snake (2002)

23
CHAPTER 3. ENERGY 24

The mass of atoms is slightly less than the sum of the masses of its nucleons. The mass tables provide
the mass excess defined by
δ=[m−Au]. (3.3)
In a doncm=Au+δ. With the definition of it, the mass excess of carbon-12 is zero.
The mass of the elements and the mass defect can be expressed in kg, of course, but the corresponding energy,
expressed in MeV or keV is generally preferred or the atomic mass unit.
This mass defect is interpreted as being due to the binding energy of the nuclei, which is related to the strong interaction.
is relatively low compared to the mass of the nucleus, but represents a high absolute energy.
The binding energy of nuclei, this time, and no longer of atoms, is defined as the energy that must be provided.
at rest to dissociate the nucleons,
B( A X N )=(Zmp+Nmn-mX )c2 , (3.4)
Z
You should signify binding energy. Strictly speaking, here,Xrepresents the mass of the nucleus.
In conclusion, there are two definitions, one involving the mass of the atoms and the other, that of the nuclei. How
Are they connected?

3.2.2 Atomic and nuclear masses

Nuclear masses are related to atomic ones by using the formula:

mN (A,Z)=mA (A,Z)−(Z×me -Be (Z)). 3.5

Here, mNrefers to the mass of the nucleus andmAof the atom or singly ionized atom. the ionization energy is generally
(much) smaller than the error on the mass, and, for the small number of very precise mass measurements, corrections for
the first -and second- ionization potentials could be applied without much loss of accuracy. The total binding energy of
the electrons, Be , cannot be measured easily. It can reach 760 keV for uranium (Z=92).
A simple formula is given in the mass table:

Be (Z)=14.4381Z2.39+1.55468×10−6Z 5.35eV. (3.6)

3.2.3 Curve d'Aston

The higher the binding energy, the more stable the nuclei are. Figure 3.1, known as the Aston curve, shows the energy.
binding energy per nucleon, which allows for comparison of the nuclei with each other. According to the most recent data [15], it is the
Nickel-62 has the highest binding energy per nucleon, followed by iron-58 and iron-56.
The order of magnitude is about 8 MeV per nucleon. By way of comparison, to break a covalent chemical bond,
it takes a few eV. It requires 106times more energy to remove a nucleon. Neither gravitational interaction, nor
The electromagnetic forces cannot explain such orders of magnitude. It is the strong interaction that is the source.
Except for light nuclei, this binding energy per nucleon is relatively constant, within 10%.
This means that, in the first approximation, B ∝ A. We will return to this.

3.2.4 Energy of nuclear reactions

During any nuclear reaction,
A1 A1 A3 A4
Z1 X1+X
Z12→X3 +X
Z3 4 , Z4 (3.7)

the released energy gives,

Q=(mX+mX−m 1
2
X-m2X)c , 3 4 (3.8)
=B(X4 ) + B(X3 )−B(X2 )−B(X1 ), (3.9)

By conserving the number of protons and neutrons, the sum of the masses of the elemental constituents simplifies.
The magnitude is commonly referred to as the reaction.
CHAPTER 3. ENERGY 25

Figure 3.1 - Aston curve: Binding energy per nucleon, in MeV per nucleon, as a function of mass number.
Figure found on the Internet.

With mass exceptions, we also have

Q=(mX+mX-1X-mX)c 2
2 , 3 4 (3.10)
=δ(X1 ) + δ(X2 )−δ(X3 )−δ(X4 ). (3.11)

Attention, this is not the same order as with the binding energies and therefore a source of confusion.
If Q>0, the reaction is said to be exothermic, and if Q<0, endothermic. In the latter case, energy must be supplied.
for it to take place. During a collision, it is the kinetic energy of the projectile that is transformed into energy
of mass, among others. Thus, for a reaction to provide energy, the sum of the binding energies must be
before the reaction is less than that after the reaction.
A spontaneous reaction must necessarily provide energy. Thus, the proton, having a mass lower than that of the
neutron, it cannot disintegrate by beta radiation+ On the other hand, in a nucleus, this disintegration is possible.
It can be seen, from Aston's curve, figure 3.1, that the fusion of light nuclei or the fission of heavy nuclei produces
of energy.
The energy emitted by an emission α, for example,
222 4
226Ra→Rn+ He, 3.12

is worth 4.93 MeV (m =225,977 0u,m 222 Rn =221,970 2uetm=4,001

226 Ra 4 He 51u). The recoil kinetic
´ energy
´ of the nucleus
Due to the mass ratio, the released energy is almost entirely carried away by the alpha radiation.
in the form of kinetic energy. In fact, we can calculate that Ecα (A−4)Q/A is the mass number of the parent nucleus.
The disintegration of one mole of radium therefore provides an energy on the order of 4.7×1011J, what is normal in relation to
the energy released by a chemical reaction (5 orders of magnitude). The energy released by the combustion of methane is by
example of the order of 8×105J/mol. The problem is that we do not control a radioactive disintegration reaction.
For a mission, the order of magnitudes will be similar. For example, the reaction
60
60 Co→Ni+e − +ν¯
e (3.13)

liberated 2.84 MeV =59,933 822uetm

60 What 60 You 59,930 788u). This energy is carried away by the electron and the anti
neutrino. Consequently, the beta radiation is continuous. The gamma radiation carries, for its part, quanta of energies of a few
hundreds of keV.
CHAPTER 3. ENERGY 26

3.2.5 Mass tables

The most recent mass table is the one of G. Audi and collaborators, that was published in 2012. It gives atomic
masses and derived quantities. As noted in this reference, with very few exceptions, experimental data on masses of nuclei
refer to 'atomic' masses or to masses of singly ionized atoms. In this last case the ionization energy is generally (much)
smaller than the error on the mass, and, for the small number of very precise mass measurements, corrections for the first
-and second- ionization potentials could be applied without much loss of accuracy.
Authors explain that "Nowadays, the highest precision values presently measured for the atomic masses are concur-
rently obtained by two different experimental techniques. The first one comprises of direct mass-spectrometry measure-
ments using Penning traps, while the second one utilizes gamma-ray energy measurements following neutron capture reactions.
The highest precision of 7×10−12The results currently achieved for mass measurements have been obtained by the Penning trap.
thod.
Note that the mass of all nuclei has not been directly measured yet. Especially for the most exotic ones. Their mass
is deduced from their decay properties, the mass of the daughter nucleus and the Q-value.
Tables [15] do not provide any more values for the binding energies, but rather give the binding energy per nucleon for.
educational reasons, connected to the Aston curve and the maximum stability around the Iron peak of importance in
astrophysics. They also give the mass defect, ∆ = (m - A)c2form which we can directly deduce the atomic mass.
Neutron and proton separation energy are also tabulated. The neutron separation energy is the amount of energy
needed to remove one neutron,
Sn=B(A X)−B( A−1 X). 3.14
Similarly, the proton separation energy reads

Sp=B(ZA X)−B( ZA−−11 Y). (3.15)

These two separation energies are analogous to the ionization energies in atoms. They give indications on the nuclear shell.
structure that is similar to the electronic shell structure.

Table 3.1 – Fundamental constants

Symbol Magnitude Value
c Speed of light in vacuum 299,792,458 m/s−1
e Elementary charge 1,602 177 33×10−19C
NA Avogadro's constant 6.0221367 x 1023mol−1
u=1/NAAtomic mass unit 1,660,538,921 x 10−27kg
931,494 061 MeV
me Mass of the electron 5,485 799 03×10−4u
mn Mass of the neutron 1,008 664 904u
mp Mass of the proton 1,007 276 466 92u

3.3 Binding energy - Energie de liaison

Figure 3.1 shows a certain regularity in the binding energy, suggesting an underlying law. What is
cette loi ? C’est l’objet de cette section. Mais avant, quelques remarques sur la de´marche scientifique de mode´lisation.

3.3.1 Chaitin's principle and least squares method

In 1686, in his famous Discourse on Metaphysics, section VI, Gottfried W. Leibniz proposed a criterion to distinguish
between facts that can be described by some law and those facts that are lawless, irregular facts. He stated that a theory has
to be simpler than the data it explains. But how to distinguish “complexity” and “simplicity”? Gregory Chaitin, inspired
by his work on information theory, proposed to compare physics that links a theory and predictions for observations by
calculations to computing that links a program and outputs by the execution on computer. See his pedagogical article [11].
CHAPTER 3. ENERGY 27

Then, his simple criterion is that the number of bits for programming the calculation is smaller than the number of bits needed.
to enumerate the value of the observables.
In mathematics, an algorithm that describes all integers is far simpler than the list of integers. Depending on the
number of digit, it can be the same for pi.
Can we replace the data on the binding energy of the numerous nuclei by a simple formula? Actually, as we have
seen, this is the scope of all theory.
To extract information from experimental data, one usually compares them to models or uses them to fit parameters from
a phenomenological approach. There are statistical methods to fit data. Once the parameters of the models are determined,
One has to evaluate their uncertainty and the quality of the fit.
It is very easy to find the equation of a straight line that passes through two points. But when one has three, four or
more points that are not necessarily well aligned because of the measurement errors or uncertainties, how to do ? Facing
what Stigler [8] calls a problem of rich man in his book on the history of statistics and the measurement of uncertainty
before 1900, physicists studying celestial mechanics or measuring the length of the meridian had far more data than
parameters to evaluate.
There were several attempts before Legendre who proposed in 1805 an Appendix on the Method of the Least Squares.
his Memoir on the orbit of comets. But there were no uncertainties in Legendre's work. One has to wait for the theory of
probabilities. But what probability density function to choose? Stigler describes several attempts by Laplace. But in 1809,
Gauss justifies the method of least squares that he claims to have been using since 1795 by using what we now call
the Gaussian distribution that was first introduced by De Moivre. Gauss uses Laplace’s version of Bayes theorem. He also
shows how to solve the problem when it is not linear.
After Laplace found the central limit theorem, he could justify in 1810 the use of the Gaussian distribution and finalize
the justification of the least square method with the theory of probabilities. He then applied it to celestial mechanics,
geodesy and social sciences. In particular, he could determine the uncertainty of the mass of Saturn and Jupiter.
How to proceed? Let us consider a set of N data {i, Bi where I identify the nucleus and BI±uIis the related binding
energy and its uncertainty given by experiments. The theoretical value of the binding energy of the same nucleus is
denotedB(Zi ,Ni Assuming that the probability density function of the experimental data is Gaussian, the parameters of
the theoretical formula can be determined by minimizing
N
[B(Z i ,Ni )−Bi ] 2
χ2= X . (3.16)
i=1
u2i

As the functionB(Zi ,Ni ) is linear with respect to its coefficients, the minimization process is quite simple and can be done
analytically. Nevertheless, mathematical expressions are somehow heavy to handle and I will not write them.
Finding the best coefficients does not mean that the fit is good. To check it, one can check δB.i=B(Zi ,Ni )−Bifor all
points. From a purely physical perspective, we can use the root mean square (abbreviated RMS or rms),

N
vut 1
rms= [B(Z I ,Ni )−Bi ]2 . (3.17)
NXi=1

From a purely statistical point of view, the deviation of the experimental data should be compared to the experimental uncertainty.
tainties to assess the quality of the fit. The fit is supposed to be good if each term of the sum in the expression of χ2is
close to one. Defining the reduced chi squared by
2χ̃= χ2
, (3.18)
ν
ν being the number of degrees of freedom, i.e. the number of data N minus the number of fitted parameters. If χ˜2is close
to one, the fit is good.
Coming back to the mass formulas, it is the minimization of therms that is usually used rather than χ.2because
Experimental uncertainties are not always available and differ by orders of magnitude, giving more weight to some well.
measured nuclei.

3.3.2 Bethe-Weizsäcker formula

Besides the nuclear physics books, this section was inspired by an enlightening article on the subject by Michael W.
Kirson [16].
CHAPTER 3. ENERGY 28

Can we find a simple formula that gives the binding energy for all nuclei? Can we get some insights from this formula?
As a first approximation, we already mentioned that B ∝ A, as shown in Fig. 3.2 where a plot of binding energy against
mass number shows a very narrow band of data. According to Kirson, a single-term mass formula B=7.95AMeV has
a root-mean-squared deviation from the measured masses of 48.416 MeV, a rather good fit to a quantity varying from 2
MeV to 1943 MeV. Such a fit is usually done with nuclei having a charge larger than 8 and a mass number larger than 16.

Figure3.2 – Dependence of total binding energy B (in MeV) on mass number A.

Figure extracted from [16].

This somehow surprising method is a manifestation of the saturation of nuclear forces. If one nucleon were interacting
with all the others, the binding energy would be proportional to A(A−1) or A 2 It is not the case which suggests that
a nucleon only interacts with its closest neighbours. As the density is constant, each nucleon has the same number of
neighbours and contributes roughly to the same amount to the binding energy.
This is not the case for nucleons near the surface that have fewer neighbours. They will not contribute as much as the
others. This effect is taken into account by subtracting a term proportional to the surface area, that is proportional to A2/3 .
As nuclei are small systems, we cannot neglect such a contribution.
With a two-term mass formula, B = av A − a s A2/3 , the rms deviation is reduced by almost a factor of 2, to 28.269 MeV.
We know that protons interact through the Coulomb repulsion. The binding energy should reflect it. A uniformly
charged sphere with a radius R has an energy

3Z2 e2
Uand= with R=r0 A1/3 . (3.19)
5 4π 0 R

As a consequence, we expect a contribution of a term proportional to Z2 /A1/3 .

With a three-term mass formula B=av A−as A2/3-aC Z 2 /A1/3 , the rms deviation is only slightly reduced, to 25.499
MeV.
Up to now, we have not distinguished between nucleons, except for the Coulomb term. One has to take into account
that for light nuclei, stable nuclei have N'Z. Otherwise our model would allow nuclei with as many neutrons as we want,
which is not the case. In addition, this N=Z effect is very important for light nuclei. Heavy nuclei need more neutrons
to counter the Coulomb repulsion term. This so-called symmetry term which intends to make the nucleus symmetric in
Protons and neutrons should decrease with A. A possible form for this term is proportional to (A−2Z)/A.
A four-term mass formula B = a v A−as A2/3-aC Z 2 /A1/3-asym(A−2Z)2 /A, the rms deviation is reduced to 3.536
MeV. This four-term formula corresponds to the historical one of Weissacker and Bethe.
CHAPITRE 3. ENERGY 29

Finally, nucleons that are fermions have a tendency to couple pairwise. In nature, there are only four nuclei with odd
NandZ(2 H,6 Li,10 Band14N), but 167 with even N and Z. The description of the binding has to include a pairing effect.
that is set to zero when A is odd (even Z and odd N or odd Z and even N). This pairing energy is positive when Z and N
are both even and negative when they are both odd.
Combining these five terms, we can try to describe the binding energy with the following five-term formula that is
used in most nuclear physics books

(A−2Z)2
B=av A−as A2/3-ac Z(Z−1)A −1/3-asym +δ, 3.20
A
with δ = ap A−3/4if
Z and N are both even, the opposite if they are both odd and zero otherwise.
Coefficients entering this formula are fitted on experimental data with Z larger than 8 and A larger than 16. Some
authors restrict their fit to masses lower than 150 [Link] a formula is said to be semi-empirical.
The ideas behind such a description were first proposed by Georges Gamov from Leningrad when he was still 27.
During the first international conference uniquely devoted to nuclear physics, held in Rome in 1931, he suggested that the
nucleus could be seen as a liquid drop. At that time the neutron was still unknown. The mass formula was first proposed
in 1935 by Carl Friedrich Weizsäcker and refined by Hans Albrecht Bethe. For more details, see [5].
As a consequence, this formula for the binding energy is called the Liquid Drop mass formula or Weizsäcker or
Bethe-Weizsäcker mass formula. Equation (3.20) corresponds to its simplest form.
Since then several terms have been added to the formula. The parameters also have evolved to take into account new
nuclei. Nowadays, there are still scientific publications on it. Depending on the date, the number of terms, the part of the
In the nuclear chart that is taken into account, one can find many values for the parameters entering this formula.
Here are some typical values for the coefficients of the Bethe-Weizsäcker mass formula, given in equation (3.20).
are not unique. In Krane’s book [2], they are

av 15.5 MeV (3.21)

a s=16.8 MeV (3.22)
ac0.72 MeV (3.23)
a sym23 MeV (3.24)
a p=34 MeV. (3.25)

This model does not give information on the identity of the nuclei but rather helps to understand the systematic
behavior of nuclear properties. How good is the agreement with experimental values ? The agreement with the global
tendency is excellent, but the deviation between the value of the binding energy given by the formula and the one given
by experiment is of the order of few MeV. Compared to the experimental uncertainties, this is large :χ˜21010!

3.3.3 Beta stability

As mentioned before, the mass formula mainly depends on A. But for a given A, what is the most stable combination?
of protons and neutrons ?
Deriving B with respect to Z for a fixed A allows to find the most stable nuclei. Taking into account that some
coefficients are small, one gets
A 1
Zmin ' , 3.26
2 1+A14 2/3 aac
sym

which is in good agreement with observed values. For light nuclei, one has ZminA/2 and for heavy onesZmin0.41A
Around these minima, the binding energy as a function of Z is a parabola. If A is odd, N and Z have different parities.
and the pairing term is zero. There is only one line. If A is even, Z and N have difference parities and the pairing term
jump from +δ to -δ and vice versa. See figure 3.3.

3.3.4 New mass formulas

As pointed out by Kirson, the venerable formula of Bethe and von Weizsäcker, which was described in detail in
"Bethe's bible" [13], has been extended and modified frequently over the years. Proliferation of terms has sometimes
CHAPTER 3. ENERGY 30

Figure 3.3 – Binding energy as a function of Z for A = 125 and A = 128. Beta-decay chains are indicated. Figure taken
from Ref. [2].

threatened to overwhelm the original purpose - to obtain as simple as possible an understanding of the dependence of
nuclear masses on N and Z.
We are going to cover all new terms, but just mention a few corrections:
— It has been forcefully argued that it is inconsistent to include a surface correction to the volume energy but not to the
symmetry energy. Consequently, a surface symmetry term is usually added. A possible form is assym(N−Z)2 /A2/3 .
— The study of mirror nuclei with the same value of A, but with N1=Z2andZ1=N2is interesting because the binding
Energies of mirror pairs can differ only in their Coulomb energies. This has led to the introduction of a correction.
to the Coulomb term called the Exchange Coulomb term. The missing term is very likely a quantal correction to
the classical Coulomb energy formula. A possible form is axC Z 4/3 /A1/3 .
The Wigner term has been introduced by Wigner in connection with his supermultiplet theory. I will not go into details.
but just note that it has the shapeW |N−Z|/A. Other forms have been suggested.
If the semi-empirical mass formula is regarded as incorporating an expansion in powers of inverse radius, 1/A , 1/3
1/3
as exemplified by the volume and surface terms, then the next order would involve a termR A generally referred
to as a curvature term. Inspection of the residuals in Fig. 5 reveals a systematic decline at large A. The curvature
term turns out to address this possible hint at omitted physics.
Some other corrections were suggested and tested in the literature. Whatever the corrections, and the number of terms,
It is difficult to get a rms lower than about 2.5 MeV. Something is missing in this approach. Residuals show other effects.
than cannot be described by such a general formula.

3.4 The layered model - Shell model

When one wants to test a function fitted to experimental data, aside from the quality of the fit discussed
Previously, one might also wonder if anything has been forgotten in the model. To do this, it may be useful to outline.
delta B idepending on. Are the points randomly dispersed or is there a structure emerging? This is what is done
in figure 3.4.
The figure clearly shows that, for certain nuclei, the discrepancies between the measured binding energy and the
The data provided by the liquid drop formula are significant. What is it due to?
The idea that nucleons could be organized in energy levels like electrons around the nucleus dates back.
From 1933, one year after the discovery of the neutron. Kurt Guggenheimer relied on careful observation of energy.
CHAPTER 3. ENERGY 31

Figure 3.4 – Difference between theoretical and experimental binding energies as a function of Z with a simple mass
formula. Figure found on the web.

the binding of a proton or a neutron in the nuclei. He noted that this energy varied continuously, except for certain
names where there were discontinuities. Walter Elsasser, on the other hand, relied on a purely theoretical approach.
by analogy with the atomic model. The problem was that the so-called theoretical and observed magic numbers did not correspond
did not sink.
In 1948, Maria Goeppert Mayer took all the available data regarding the nuclei such as the masses,
spins and magnetic moments. She observed that the nuclei that have either 20, 50, or 82 protons, or 20, 50, 82, 126
Neutrons have truly remarkable properties. Calcium (Z=20) has, for example, 5 isotopes, and tin (Z=50)
10. The effective neutron capture cross-section is weaker. Uranium fissures into two fission products that have
mostly 50 or 82 neutrons.
The problem is that the calculations still did not yield the same numbers. It is still Maria Goeppert Mayer.
who found the explanation: spin-orbit coupling. It is a purely quantum effect, added cbutihyfladnid,
intuitively explain. It naturally emerges when taking relativistic effects into account. This coupling term is
a surface effect since it depends on the density gradient.
Hans Jensen, Otto Haxel, and Hans Suess independently reached the same conclusions, almost at the same time.
time that Maria Goeppert Mayer. Their articles are published with a few weeks apart in June 1949.
The layered model has experienced tremendous success as it has allowed for a better understanding of many observations, in addition to
magic numbers are: 2, 8, 10, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126. The last one is for neutrons only. Nowadays, it
is still the subject of developments to include the new properties of exotic nuclei.
In the case of the atomic model, the principal quantum number is related to the energy of the orbit, but also to its radius.
average. This is not the case in nuclear physics. The layers are energy-based, there is no spatial correspondence.
Another difference: for the atom, the electrons are subjected to the electric field of the nucleus which is external, diminished by a
screening factor for the shallower layers. In the case of the core, the nucleons experience a mean field
of all the other nucleons in the nucleus. Because of the Pauli exclusion principle, nucleons have an average free path
in the core that corresponds to the size of the core.
Some nuclei are called doubly magic because the number of protons AND the number of neutrons are equal to
4 16 40 48 208Pb
magic names. This is the case of He. 2 2 , O88 , Ca20 20 , You
28 20and you 82 126These nuclei are particularly stable.
Their abundance is greater in nature than for neighboring nuclei.
Figure A.4 shows the layer correction energy on the core map.
CHAPTER 3. ENERGY 32

Recent research on exotic nuclei has shown that these magic numbers could be different for
nuclei that are very rich or very poor in neutrons.
The liquid drop model will never be able to take into account the individual properties of the nuclei related to
layered model. It only provides the overall trend. In practice, the properties of the kernels are described using
mic-mac models for microscopic-macroscopic, or at the macroscopic binding energy of the liquid droplet, one
add a layer correction energy, obtained by a microscopic model.
The layered model requires knowledge of quantum mechanics and will therefore be studied in the following semester.
Chapter 4

Nuclear reactions

4.1 The need for accelerators

The results as a whole suggest that, if alpha particles–or similar projectiles–of even greater energy were
available for experiment, we might expect to break down the nucleus structure of many of the lighter atoms.

Overall, the results suggest that if the α particles or similar projectiles of energy
even higher levels were available for the experiments, we could break the structure of the nuclei of
numerous light atoms.
E. Rutherford, "Collisions of α particles with light atoms. IV. An anomalous effect in nitrogen", Philosophical
Magazine37, 581 (1919). French version by B. Fernandez [5].

4.1.1 The Contribution of Rutherford

The discovery of radiation and radioactivity has allowed us to probe matter. Since 1900, Marie Curie had
I studied the penetrating power of particles emitted by polonium, which allowed me to observe that these 'rays' are not
"deviables" lose their ionization power as soon as they have traveled an approximate thickness of 4 cm of air. By studying
the diffusion of alpha particles in matter, Hans Geiger (1882 - 1945), assistant to Rutherford, observes that some
particles are deflected at large angles, up to 165 degrees.
Thus, Ernest Rutherford (1871 - 1937) made the discovery of the nucleus by bombarding a thin sheet of gold with a
Alpha radiation. The vast majority of alpha particles passed through the sheet without being deflected, demonstrating that matter
is essentially made of void. But a few of them (1 in 8,000) are backscattered, meaning they are detected.
the same side as the source. We are in 1909. We will have to wait until 1911 for Rutherford to propose a model of
the atom with a small very hard nucleus that concentrates the bulk of the mass. He deduced a probability of deviation that has
could be verified experimentally. This planetary model was suggested in 1904 by Hantaro Nagaoka (1865 - 1950),
who had abandoned him himself.
In 1912, Rutherford used the word nucleus for the first time...
TowardstheendoftheFirstWorldWar,backinhislaboratory,[Link]
experiments with the aim of studying the possibility of nuclear reactions. It was already suspected at the time that such
reactions can take place in the stars.
For this, he placed a source in a chamber with different gases, which led him to publish four articles in 1919.
where he described what he had observed with hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. For the latter element, he mentions
an anomaly and concludes with the highlighted sentence at the beginning of this chapter.
It will take several more years to identify the emitted projectile (a proton, called ray Ha at the time) and the reaction.
nuclear involvement:
α+14 N→17O+p (4.1)
This is the first transmutation reaction caused by Man. Rutherford deduced the size of the nucleus from it.

33
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 34

4.1.2 The first nuclear reaction caused by artificially accelerated particles

In 1928, George Gamow (1904 - 1968) showed that during a radioactive decay, the α particle escapes from the
nucleus by tunnel effect, a purely quantum phenomenon. Once in the Cavendish laboratory directed by Rutherford, he calculates
the probability that a proton follows the reverse path to penetrate a nucleus: it finds of the order of one thousandth
a voltage of 300 kV, which is feasible. And that is how John Cockroft (1897 - 1967) and Ernest Walton (1903 - 1995)
published in 1932, in Nature, that "it does not seem implausible that the lithium isotope with mass 7 captures time
In time, a proton and the resulting nucleus, with a mass of 8, breaks into two alpha particles, each with a mass of four.
Observe the first nuclear reaction caused by artificially accelerated particles, which will earn them the prize.
Nobel in 1951.

4.2 Accelerate step by step

Until 1932, discoveries regarding nuclear physics had used alpha particles from radioactivity.
Fast. To be able to approach the nucleus, one must be able to overcome a very high Coulombic energy with particles.
having a large kinetic energy. Radioactive sources provide alpha particles with energy up to 8 MeV.
To go beyond, electrostatic fields of several million volts are needed. The problem of high
tensions, it is that they ionize the air and induce dangerous sparks that discharge the conductor carried under a
high voltage.

4.2.1 Cyclotrons
Faced with the difficulty of obtaining high voltages, Gustav Ising suggests conveying kinetic energy to
particles, not all at once, but through many successive accelerations. This is Berkeley, in California,
that this idea is implemented by Ernest Orlando Lawrence (1901 - 1958) who invents the cyclotron. The first
The cyclotron was realized in 1931 with his student Stanley Livingston (1905 - 1986). In 1932, a new cyclotron was delivered.
a proton beam of 1.2 MeV. At this moment, it is the only device in the world capable of doing this. Cyclotrons are
still used today for research, such as at GANIL, or for the production of medical radioisotopes. Their
size varies depending on the characteristics of the accelerated particles and the kinetic energies to be reached.
A cyclotron consists of two parts in the shape of half a camembert or the letter D (dee in English) in which
a constant and uniform magnetic field. Charged particles therefore have a circular trajectory in these two
parties. Between the two half-camemberts, an oscillating potential difference gives an acceleration to the particles.
each passage. See figure 4.1.
In a D, the fundamental relation of dynamics is written
d~v
m ~
=q~v∧B. (4.2)
dt
By projecting onto the intrinsic basis, we obtain that

dv v2
=0 and m =qvB. (4.3)
dt r
Thus, in each D, the ions have a uniform circular motion of radius r = mv/qB. The speed increases to
each passage between the two D's, the radius of curvature in the D's as well. At the exit of the cyclotron, the speed is always
The radius of the cyclotron, regardless of the accelerating potential difference.
The oscillations of the potential difference must be synchronized with the passage of ions. The angular velocity,
qB
ω= . (4.4)
m
It is independent of the radius. The passage time as well. The cyclotron frequency is called the angular speed that is acquired.
a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field. The frequency of the acceleration electric field must therefore
It should therefore be adjusted accordingly. It is necessary to adjust it and/or set it based on the load and mass of the accelerated particle.
As the particles must pass between the electrodes when the field is in the right direction, we cannot have a flow.
Continuation of particles. They are therefore sent in packets or in a pulsed manner. The frequency must be a harmonic.
impact of the cyclotron frequency.
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 35

Figure 4.1 – Principle diagram of a cyclotron. Source: [Link]

A flash animation is available online here:

[Link]
The particles are injected at the center of the cyclotron and come out at the periphery, all at the same speed.
Given the details, the final speed thus depends on the Bet and the radius of the cyclotron, and not on the accelerating potential difference.
If this voltage difference is low, the particles will stay longer in the cyclotron, but will exit at the same speed.
Si la vitesse approche celle de la lumie`re, les effets relativistes font que la masse augmente. Il faut alors asservir
the frequency at the speed (synchrocyclotron). This can also be done with non-uniform magnetic fields.
the inside of magnets.
At GANIL, in the large cyclotrons CSS1 and CSS2, the magnetic field is on the order of a tesla. The frequencies
Accelerators go from 7 to 14 MHz. Heavy ions are injected at a radius of one meter and exit with a radius of three.
The ions are therefore three times faster at the exit.

4.2.2 Linear Accelerators - linear accelerators (linac)

The linear accelerator is older than the cyclotron, but it faced technological difficulties. From our
days, it is completely competitive with cyclotrons. The first is due to Rolf Widerøe (1902 - 1996) who accelerated
potassium ions at an energy of 50 keV in 1928.
A linear accelerator or linac consists of a series of resonant accelerating cavities represented on the
Figure 4.2. The outer armature is connected to the ground while the inner armature is held at an oscillating potential V.
The electric field inside the inner electrode is zero, but not between the electrodes. It must change sign between
the entry and the exit so that the particles are always accelerated.
Thus, the transit time in a cavity must correspond to a half-period:
L T
= , 4.5
v 2
Here are the length, the speed, and the period. In general, a single frequency is applied to the cavities. Therefore, it is the
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 36

Figure 4.2 - Schematic of a linear accelerator cavity.

size that changes according to the speed, the cells in front become larger at the end of the accelerator.
To ensure that the accelerator is not too long, it is necessary to have the smallest cavities possible. This means
very strong electric fields and also high frequencies, on the order of several megahertz. The wavelengths
corresponding are therefore on the order of the meter. Therefore, one must see the cavity as a waveguide whose dimensions are
Adjustments of the way to have a resonant cavity at the desired frequency and thus achieve the best energy efficiency.
The great contribution of this technology is that the ion, and all the equipment, are at ground potential at the input and at
exit. This is not the case with Walton-Cockcroft or Van de Graaf type accelerators. It should be noted that in cyclotrons,
Between the two deities, there are accelerator cavities installed for the same reason.
The Spiral2 linear accelerator will have about thirty cavities with oscillating fields at frequencies on the order of
of 80 MHz and an accelerating voltage of around 500 kV. The study and production of such cavities having a high cost, it
There are only two different sizes.

4.3 Reaction theory

4.3.1 Notations
Most nuclear reactions are studied by inducing a collision between two nuclei, where one of the reacting nuclei is
at rest (the target nucleus) while the other nucleus (the projectile nucleus) is in motion.
Such nuclear reactions can be described generically as
P+T→X+R, (4.6)
where X represents the emitted particle and R the residual nucleus. A shorthand way to denote such reactions is, for the
general case
T ( P, X ) R . (4.7)
P+T is called the entrance channel and X+R the output channel.
There are various kinds of reactions depending on the nature of the colliding nuclei, the energy, etc. But to collide, the
Nuclei have to touch each other. This requires enough energy to overcome the Coulomb repulsion.

4.3.2 Center of mass frame

What energy is needed for a fusion reaction?
Let us consider a simple fusion reaction,208Pb(7 Li,γ)215At. The Q-value can be calculated with the mass table. It is
negative :Q=−5.589 MeV. This means that each reaction requires 5.589 MeV. But if we accelerate the7 The projectile to
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 37

5.589 MeV, no reaction occurs. Why?

The energy balance of the reaction reads
KP +mP c2+mTc2=KX+mX c2+KR+mR c2+E∗ , (4.8)
where theKi denote the kinetic energy of each particle and E∗ the excitation energy of the residue. And then,

KP=KR+KX−Q+E∗ . (4.9)
To find the minimum kinetic energy of the projectile called the threshold energy, we can suppose that the excitation energy
vanishes. But we cannot cancel the kinetic energies of the products because of the conservation of the linear momentum
during the collision.
To understand this, we have to consider the so-called two-body problem.

The two-body problem

Let us consider two particles, P and T, interacting with each other, but without any external force.
ting the weight of the particles in nuclear physics. BeOa fixed point in an inertial frame. Newton’s law reads
−−→
d2 OP
mP ~
=FT →P (4.10)
dt2
−−→
d2 OT
mT ~
=FP→T . (4.11)
dt2
Here P and T denote the position of each nucleus. These two equations are coupled through the forces. According to
~ opposite reaction.
Newton's third law, or the action and reaction law, states that for every action, there is an equal and ~ T →P . =−FP→T
Summing up these two equations leads to
−−→
d2 OP −−→
d2 OT −−→
d2 OG
mP +mT =0~ or 0~ (4.12)
dt2 dt2 dt2
with the center of mass G defined as
−−→ −−→
−→ mP OP+mT OT .
−
OG= (4.13)
mP+mT
−−→
Then, one immediately gets that~vG= dog dt is constant. The velocity of the center of mass is unchanged during the reaction.
and the associated kinetic energy is also constant.
To get rid of this effect, we usually study the collision in the center of mass frame.
How do velocities look like in the two frames? They are represented in figure 4.3. In case of a complete fusion.
reaction, when there is only one nucleus in the output channel, its velocity is equal to the velocity of the centre of mass.
Consequently, in the center of mass frame, the output compound nucleus is at rest.
The fact that the center of mass has a velocity that is conserved during the collision means that a part of the kinetic
The energy given to the projectile is taken away by the center of mass and cannot be used for the reaction. How the kinetic
Is energy shared?
The König decomposition of energy gives
1
Kto=KP=(mP+mT)vG2+Kcm. (4.14)
2
The first term of the r.h.s represents the kinetic energy of the centre of mass and the second one, the total kinetic energy in
the center of mass frame. The first term is unchanged by the collision whereas the second one can be used for the reaction.
mP
Denoting0the initial velocity given to the projectile by the accelerator in the laboratory frame, one has vG= m +m
v0
which is constant. Plugging this expression into the previous equation, one gets that the kinetic energy of the cinP tr eT of
mass reads
mP mT
KG= KP and then K =K -K = KP . (4.15)
mP+mT cm to G mP+mT
HereKP=mP12v02is the initial kinetic energy given to the projectile by the accelerator.
If the light nucleus is used as a projectile and the heavy one as a target, more energy will be available for the reaction.
than with the opposite case.
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 38

Laboratory frame Center of mass

frame

Input channel
T

′
Output channel

Figure 4.3 – Velocities of the particles in the laboratory and center of mass frames.

Threshold energy
As the velocity of the center of mass is constant, the center of mass frame is an inertial frame in which all the laws of
mechanics are valid. In the center of mass frame, equation (4.9) becomes

Kcm=K∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ (4.16)
P +KT =KR +KX -Q+E .

Here, Kcmis the total kinetic energy and the other K's the kinetic energies of each particle in the center of mass frame. To
find the threshold energy, i.e. the minimum kinetic energy of the projectile necessary to have a reaction, we can suppose
that the excitation energy vanishes. If it is a fusion reaction or if light particles are emitted, we can neglect the kinetic
energies in the output channel. Consequently, to observe a reaction, the total kinetic energy in the centre of mass frame
should satisfiesKcm>−Q.
Back to the laboratory frame to tune the accelerator, the minimum kinetic energy of the projectile necessary to have a
reaction is
mT+mP
Kth' − Q. (4.17)
mT
Of course, if Q > 0, there is no threshold. Nuclei can decay without an external trigger. If Q < 0, the kinetic energy that
has to be delivered by the beam to trigger the reaction is higher than |Q|.
The exact formula for the threshold energy reads
mR+mX
Kth=− Q. (4.18)
mR+mX−mP
See ref. [2] for details.
Getting back to the reaction208Pb(7 Li,γ)215At the threshold energy is 5.78 MeV. If we accelerate to 5.78 MeV, there
There is still no reaction. Why?
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 39

Coulomb barrier
In nuclear physics, both target and projectile have a positive charge and Coulomb force is repelling them. This is the
only interaction force when the two nuclei are far away. When they reach a relative distance of a few femtometers, the strong
interaction starts to play a role, overcoming the Coulomb repulsion. The resulting potential energy exhibits a barrier that
has to be overcome even if Q>0. See figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 – Potential energy between two light nuclei graphed as a function of distance between them. Here Q > 0.

Classically, the nuclei should have enough kinetic energy to get over the Coulomb repulsion hump, to combine, release
energy, and drop into a deep attractive well. Tunneling through the barrier is important in practice. The greater the kinetic
Energy and the higher the particles get up the barrier (or the lower the barrier), the more likely the tunneling.
The potential barrier that has to be overcome is called the Coulomb barrier and it is generally higher than the threshold.
Energy defined before. This means that the compound nucleus is excited. Note that with neutrons, there is no Coulomb.
barrier.
The Coulomb barrier is well approximated by the Coulomb energy at contact of the two colliding nuclei which reads

Z1 Z2 e2
BC= . (4.19)
4π0 (RT+RP )
To fuse, the kinetic energy of the projectile in the center of mass frame should be higher than B.C In the laboratory frame,
the kinetic energy of the projectile should then be higher than
mT+mP
K p> BC . (4.20)
mT
Back to the studied system, one has mTm+m
T
P
BC29.1 MeV which is far higher than the threshold energy. If projectile
is accelerated to 29.1 MeV, we can observe a fusion reaction!
We can conclude this part summarizing the energy constraints:
[Link]>Kth This is related to the momentum and energy conservation. This is an absolute condition.
mT+mP
[Link]> mT BC This is related to the charge repulsion. Because of quantum tunneling, barrier penetration is
possible below this energy but the probability is low.
In general mTm+m
T
P
BC>Kthexcept for very light nuclei.
If we accelerate the projectile at a kinetic energy larger than the Coulomb barrier, several kinds of reactions are
observed. Why?
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 40

4.3.3 Impact impact parameter

The previous study on the Coulomb barrier was done assuming a frontal collision. But there no reason that the projec-
The tile is targeting the target nucleus. We define a so-called impact parameter denoted as b. See figure 4.5. Coulomb repulsion.
will deviate the projectile and the nuclei might never get in contact even at high energy.

Figure 4.5 – Impact parameter b.

With neutrons, the situation is simpler because they are not deviated. If the impact parameter is larger than the radius.
of the target nucleus, we can consider that there’s no reaction. If it is smaller, a reaction is possible. With quantum
mechanics, reality is a bit more complex as we will see later.
With charged particles, it is more complicated because we face a 2D problem with two coordinates, the relative
the distance and the rotation angle θ of the velocity of the projectile. See figure 4.5. Both coordinates evolve with time. To
To study the collision, one must go back to the two-body problem, taking into account the angular momentum~L that is also
conserved during the collision.

Back to the two-body problem

Let us recall some basic results related to the two-body problem. As already stated, Newton's law in the laboratory
frame reads
−−→
d2 OP
mP ~
=FT →P (4.21)
dt2
−−→
d2 OT
mT ~
=FP→T . (4.22)
dt2
Here P and T denote the position of each nucleus.
We are looking for an equation for the relative distance r = TP =−−OP
→−−→−−
-→
OT. From Newton's equations, one gets

d22dOP
~r d−−→
2 OT −−→ 1 1 1 1
= − = F~T →P − F~P→T = " + # F~T →P . (4.23)
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 m P mT m m
T P

This leads to
d2~r m P mT
µ =F~T →P with µ= and . −−→
~=rTP (4.24)
dt2 mP+mT
Here, µ is called the reduced mass. Then, the two-body problem can be reduced to the study of the motion of one virtual
particle in the center of mass frame having a mass µ and the position ~r.
We can easily show that within the two-body problem, the total angular momentum in the center of mass frame reads

~
L∗G=µ~r∧~v, (4.25)
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 41

where v = r.˙ With a central force

~∗
dL G
=~r∧F~1→2=0, ~ (4.26)
dt
which means that the total angular momentum is conserved. One of the consequences is that the collision is in plane
∗
perpendicular to L~G .
The angular momentum can be calculated from the initial conditions.
~
L∗ ~
G=b∧µ~v0=µbv0~
uz . (4.27)
˙
With polar coordinates, see figure 4.5, r = r urand v = r dot ur+rθ~uθ Consequently, ~∗
at a time t, LG=µrθ~u 2˙
z The total
Kinetic energy in the center of mass frame reads
1 2 1 2 2 ˙2 1 2
LG∗ 2
Kcm=µv=µ(r˙+rθ)=µr˙+ . (4.28)
2 2 2 2µr2
Finally, in the center of mass frame, the Hamiltonian or the total energy of the system reads
1 LG∗ 2
H=Kcm+U=µr˙2+ +U (4.29)
2 2µr2
where U denotes the interaction potential. The middle term depends on r and not r˙ and can be seen as the potential energy
of the centrifugal force.
Finally, the 2D problem with an impact parameter can be reduced to a 1D problem only depending on ras for a central
collision with an effective potential
LG∗ 2
Ue f f = +U. (4.30)
2µr2
This means that the rotational energy is not available for the reaction as for the kinetic energy of the center of mass of the.
system.
If b=0, it is exactly as before. Otherwise, in the center of mass frame, the energy necessary to come into contact should
be higher than
LG∗ 2
BC+ with LG∗ =µbv0 . (4.31)
2µ(RT+RP )2

Various types of reactions

When the impact parameter increases, the available energy at contact, if there is contact, decreases. In addition, the
overlapping matter is reduced. As a consequence, the reaction will not be the same.
We can classify the various types of reactions as a function of the centre of mass energy and the impact parameter.
noting that we cannot control the latter. This means that during an experiment, there are various kinds of reactions and
The experimentalist must first select the ones that interest them.
Figure 4.6 shows the possible reactions as a function of the impact parameter. Central collisions lead to fusion if
there is enough energy, of course. When the impact parameter is larger, the overlapping matter decreases and only a part
of each nucleus will react. Such kinds of reactions are called incomplete fusion or deep inelastic collisions. When the two
nuclei are just grazing each other, Coulomb and strong interaction come into play when they are close to each other. They
exchange energy or even nucleons. Then, with large impact parameters, one has Rutherford or elastic scattering.
The possible reactions also depend on the energy of the collision. Figure 4.7 proposes a classification of the possible
reactions in the energy - impact parameter plane. Note that during an experiment, one can control the energy, not the impact
parameter. Experimentalists have to select the interesting reaction among all possibilities.

4.4 Cross-sections - Effective sections

Up to now, we only have studied the interaction between one projectile nucleus against one target nucleus. In reality,
There are many nuclei in both the target and the beam. How many of them will react?
Matter is mainly made of emptiness. In addition, projectiles are scattered by the electric field of the target. Only a small
fraction of the projectiles will enter in contact with the target nuclei. Let us estimate it. We shall start with neutron that
are not deviated by the electric field and then consider ions.
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 42

Figure 4.6 – Various kinds of reactions depending on the impact parameter.

4.4.1 With neutrons

Consider the situation where a beam of neutrons of intensity I.0particles per second is incident upon a thin foil of
target nuclei. We will denote the flux of transmitted particles. What fraction of the incident particles disappear from the
beam, i.e., react, in passing through the foil?
Let us assume the beam intersects an area A on the foil. Only a fraction of the area is covered by target nuclei. What
Is the size of the target nucleus seen by the projectile? We can consider a very simple geometrical model depicted in
figure 4.8. Ifb>RT+RPprojectile and target don’t touch and there’s no reaction. If b < RT+RPthey will touch
and we will consider that there is a reaction. Consequently, the probability to react is proportional to the cross-sectional
areaπ(RT+RP )2 . Such a model is very approximate. Remember that the diffuseness of the nuclear surface. Quantum
mechanics should also be considered.
We define the total reaction cross-section as

σR=π(RP+RT)2=πr0 (A1/3+AT1P/3 )2 . (4.32)

Because nuclear radii are on the order of a few femtometers, we can anticipate that the cross-sections for nuclear reactions
involving the strong interaction will often be of the order of a few fm2 In fact, the most often used unit for cross-section is the
barn
1b=100 fm2 =10−28m2 10−24cm2 . (4.33)
For neutron capture, the cross-section can be orders of magnitude larger than the barn, whereas in heavy-ions collisions,
some cross-sections can be measured in millibarns, microbarns, even picobarns.
Let us go back to the flux of particles through the foil. The probability that a single projectile reacts with the target is
Nσ R
=nSσR , (4.34)
A
where N is the total number of atoms in the area A and ns the same number per unit area. As there are projectiles per
second impinging the target, the reaction rate, i.e. the number of projectiles reacting per unit of time, is

RRIns σR . 4.35

These reactions deplete the beam and we finally have

-dI=RRIns σR . 4.36
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 43

Figure 4.7 – Various kinds of reactions depending on the center of mass energy and the impact parameter.

In the foregoing discussion, σRrefers to all reactions. In many cases, we are interested in only one of several reactions
that may be taking place. We can refer to the cross section for that particular reaction. In addition, we may be interested
not only in a specific product, but a particular product moving in a particular direction relative to the direction of the
projectile beam. This is especially the case with charged particles that are deviated by the electric field of the target.

4.4.2 With charged particles

With charged particles, instead of the touching spheres model, we will assume that all nuclei getting into contact will
LG∗ 2
react. This is possible, as we have seen, whenKcm>BC+ 2µ(RT+RP )2
withLG∗ =µbv0 . Noting thatKcm=μv20 , 12the two
colliding nuclei will be in contact if
b2
Kcm > KcmB+C , (4.37)
(RTRP )2

Figure 4.8 – Schematic representation of the touching sphere model.

CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 44

or
BC
b2<(RT+RB )21− !. (4.38)
Kcm
Then
BC
σR=π(RT +RP )21− ! if Kcm>BC (4.39)
Kcm
=0 else. (4.40)

WhenKcmNot applicableC one recovers the touching sphere model. When it is not the case, the cross-section is reduced by the
Coulomb scattering.
For work at accelerators, we may place the detector in a specific direction relative to the direction of the beam. In this
In this case, we can speak of a differential cross section, or the cross section per unit solid angle, dσ.R /dΩ. For a thin target,
we have
dN dσR
Ins , (4.41)
dΩ dΩ
wheredN/dΩ is the number of particles detected moving in a particular direction per unit solid angle per unit of time.
The total cross section is just the sum of the differential cross-section over all angles.
π 2π
dσR dσR
σR= Z dΩ = Z Z sinθdθdφ. (4.42)
dΩ 0 0 dΩ
In many applications, we are not only interested in the probability of finding an emitted particle X at a certain angle, we also
want to find it at a particular energy, corresponding to the energy of the residual nucleus. We define the doubly differential
cross-section 2 σR /dEX dΩ is the probability of finding X in the angular range of dΩ and in the energy range dEX . In the
In scientific literature, this additional energy dependence is often not explicitly stated: dσR /dΩis in realityd2 σR /dEX dΩ.
This is specific to accelerator physics. In a nuclear reactor, there is no beam. Neutrons come from any direction and
One rather uses the total cross-section with respect to angles.

4.4.3 With thick targets

Note that with a thick target the beam is depleted before getting out of the target and the reaction rate decreases, see
figure 4.9. If we denote the position in the target along the beam direction, the beam intensity I(z) depends on z. In Eq.
(4.36), the number of target nuclei per unit area
n s =ndz, (4.43)
with n being the number of target nuclei per unit volume. Eq. (4.36) becomes

-dI=InσR dz, 4.44

which can be integrated into

I(z)=I 0 e−nσ zR . 4.45
Thus we see exponential absorption of the incident projectile beam and have thus derived a form of the Beer-Lambert.
Law. The reaction rate, i.e. number of reactions per time unit that are occurring is the difference between the initial and
transmitted flux, i.e.,
RtotI0-I(d)=I01−e−nσ d
R
, (4.46)
where is the thickness of the target.
Note that when small, one recovers the formula of the thin target, as expected. The previous integration assumed
thatRis uniform within the target. This is correct with neutral particles such as neutrons but not with charged ones.
that lose energy along their path in target. As cross sections usually depend on energy, the integration should be done
numerically.
When various nuclei are produced by the irradiation of the target, σRdenotes the total cross-section :

σR=σa+σb+. . . 4.47
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 45

Figure4.9 – Illustration of the Beer-Lambert absorption law in a thick target.

The production rate of nuclei or the number of specific nuclei produced per unit of time in a thin layer dx in the target is

dRa=I(z)nσazz.(4.48)

Note that the beam is depleted by the total cross section σ.RandI(z) is given by eq. (4.45). The integration over the whole
target leads to
σ
Ra= a I01−e−nσ d R . (4.49)
σR
Finally,
Ra σa
= . 4.50
RuntilσR
In this expression, σa /σRcan be seen as a branching ratio. For a thick target, it is only correct for neutral particles, as
previously explained.

4.4.4 Application: activation

Activation of a material is a process that produces radioactive nuclei. This is the case, for example, to produce ra-
Radioelements for medicine or industry. In such a case, production is desired. Radioisotopes should be extracted to produce
sources. In nuclear reactors, building materials are also activated although it is not wanted because it generates nuclear
waste.
Radioisotopes are produced in a target by irradiation but also decay due to radioactivity. A conservation equation
should take into account both processes. The variation of the number of elements in the target per unit of time
dNa=Ra dt−λNa dt (4.51)
whereRais the production rate estimated in the previous subsection and λ the radioactive decay constant. We end up with
a first-order differential equation
dNa
+λNa=Ra , (4.52)
dt
that is easy to integrate. We get
Ra
Na (t)= 1−e−λt i . (4.53)
λ h
The activity of the produced isotope is
Aa=λNa=Ra1−e−λth i. 4.54
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 46

BothNa (t) andAa (t) saturates.

After one half-life, these two quantities have reached half of their saturation values. It is 3/4 after two half-lives.
7/8 after three half-lives. . . As soon as the beam is stopped, the activity follows the usual decay law.
In the previous study, we have supposed that n is constant. With long irradiation times, the production of nucleia
depletes the targets and n(t) decreases with time. We can still solve the differential equation, but the final expression will
be a bit more complicated.

4.5 Some typical reactions

In the previous section, we have developed a very simple geometrical model to evaluate the cross-section: as soon as
two nuclei or an incident particle and a nucleus get in contact, we assumed that they react. There is no nuclear physics in
this approach. It could have been other kinds of target and projectiles: balls, atoms, clusters...
Reality is not as simple as that. Once they are in contact, there is still a certain probability of getting the desired reaction.
This probability is specific to nuclear physics. This is where nuclear physics starts!
A more precise analysis should also use quantum mechanics.

4.5.1 Quantum waves approach

With neutrons
The incident particle can also be described as an incident wave with the wavelength given by the De Broglie formula.

λ ~
o= = , 4.55
2π p
where p = µ is the linear momentum. Angular momentum l can also be expressed in terms of o:
~b
L=pb= . (4.56)
o
But the angular momentum can only take discrete values in quantum mechanics.

L=`~, (4.57)

=0,1,2,3... Then, we simply have b=o. This is not quite right because is quantized but b is not. We get around
this by associating with certain rings or zones on the target. For head-on collisions (`=0), the range of b is from 0 to
while for`=1 collisions, the range ofbis fromoto 2o. Thus the cross section is larger for larger impact parameters and
these larger impact parameters are associated with larger angular momenta. The total cross section is

σR=π(`max+1)2 o2 , (4.58)

withmax=RT/o. Thus we have for the total cross section,

σR=π(RT+o)2 . (4.59)

The total cross section is proportional to the size of the target nucleus and the size of the projectile nucleus. Since the
The wavelength of the projectile, o, goes to infinity as the projectile energy goes to zero; the cross sections for neutrons at low
Energies can be very large.
This model is still geometrical. For a given, there is a given probability to have the neutron absorbed. In quantum
mechanics, it is expressed by a transmission coefficient T` that varies between 0 and 1.
For a specific value of `, we can write the cross section as

σ` =π(`+1)2 o2−π`2 o2=πo2 (2`+1). (4.60)

Then, the total cross section reads

` max
σR=πo2 X (2`+1). (4.61)
=0
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 47

Taking into account the transmission coefficient T` , we finally have

` max
σR=πo2 X (2`+1)T` . (4.62)
=0

Nuclear physics enters inT` .

At high energy, T` =1 up tomaxandT` =0 for` > `max . The total cross section tends to the geometrical one. At very
√
low energies, T` =Efor`=0 andT` =0 for` >0. Thus,

√ ~2 √ 1
σR∝o2E is proportional E∝ √ . (4.63)
2µEto E
Such a behaviour of the cross section for neutral induced reactions is referred to as 1/v behaviour.

With charged projectiles

As in the classical approach, in addition to the Coulomb repulsion, the conservation of angular momentum leads
to an effective potential. In quantum mechanics2=(`+1)~2 Thus, the effective barrier reads

(+1)~2
Be f f(`)=BC+ . 4.64
2µ(RT+RP )2

If we keep a geometrical model, but with quantum waves, we shall write that T` (Kcm=θ(Kcm−Be f f ) where θ is the
Heavyside step function. Summation should be done up to a grazing angular [Link] asKcm=Be f f(`g ).
After a few lines of calculation, we finally get the same result as the classical approach, assuming thatg is large,

BC
σR=π(RT+RP )21− ! if Kcm>BC (4.65)
Kcm
=0 else. (4.66)

Once again, this model is purely geometrical: the target nucleus is seen as a black body absorbing all incident waves.
More realistic models have to provide more realistic values for T.` .

4.5.2 Elastic scattering

The incident particles are represented by plane waves. The emitted particles should be described by spherical waves.
Locally, we can approximate them as plane waves. The nucleus is seen as an opaque disk. In the optical case, this leads to
diffraction at the sharp edge with a series of maxima and minima. The first minima occurs at θ'λ/RTand the succeeding
ones are roughly equally spaced. The succeeding maxima are of steadily and substantially decreasing intensity.
Figure 4.10 shows the angular distribution of 800 MeV protons that have been elastically scattered from208Pb. The
Coulomb barrier is penetrated so diffraction occurs at small angles. At lower energies, diffraction-like behavior occurs.
only at large angles and it corresponds to the closest distance between projectile and target.
To improve this very simple model, there is the so-called optical model as a tool to understand and parameterize.
studies of elastic scattering. It likens the interaction of projectile and target nucleus with that of a beam of light interacting
with a glass ball. To simulate the occurrence of both elastic scattering and absorption (reactions) in the interaction, the
glass ball is imagined to be somewhat cloudy. In formal terms, the nucleus is represented by a nuclear potential that has a
real and an imaginary part,
U(r) = V(r) + iW(r) (4.67)
where the imaginary potential W(r) describes absorption (reactions) as the depletion of flux into non-elastic channels and
the real potential V(r) describes the elastic scattering.

4.5.3 Compound-nucleus reactions

A compound nucleus is formed when an incident particle enters a target nucleus with an impact parameter.
meter small compared with the nuclear radius. As the Coulomb barrier is higher than the threshold energy, the compound
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 48

Figure 4.10 – angular distribution of 800 MeV protons that have been elastically scattered from208Pb (figure taken from
[7].)

The nucleus is excited and will decay through various processes. Consequently, the compound nucleus is relatively long-lived.
reaction intermediate that is the result of a complicated set of two body interactions in which the energy of the projectile
is distributed among all the nucleons of the composite system. Symbolically the reaction becomes

a + X → C∗ →Y+b, (4.68)
whereC∗ indicates the compound nucleus.
An important feature of compound nucleus reactions is that the decay mode of the compound nucleus is independent.
of its mode of formation. It is the Bohr independence hypothesis. While this statement is not true in general, it remains a
useful tool for understanding certain features of compound nuclear reactions.
Let us consider a specific example. The compound nucleus64Zn∗ can be formed through several reactions, including
p+ Cu and α+60Ni. It can also decay in a variety of ways, including63Zn+n62Zn+2n, and62Cu+p+n. Figure 4.11
63

shows the experimental cross sections for these two reactions leading to three different decay channels. It is consistent with
the assumptions of the compound nucleus model.
The compound nucleus model works better at low incident energies and medium-weighted and heavy nuclei where
the nuclear interior is large enough to absorb the incident energy.
The cross section for a compound nuclear reaction can be written as the product of two factors, the probability of
forming the compound nucleus and the probability that the compound nucleus decays in a given way. As described above,
the probability of forming the compound nucleus can be written as
∞
σR=πo2 X (2`+1)T` . (4.69)
=0

For a specific decay channel, we also include the probability of decaying through this mode.
For slightly excited nuclei, few nucleons are on higher shells and decay by gamma emission like for electrons in the
atom. When the excitation energy gets higher, energy levels are getting closer and closer and nucleons can reach the
continuum that is characterized by a level density function. The various decay channels are treated in a purely statistical
way.
There are other types of reactions. In direct reactions, the incident particles interact primarily at the surface of the
target nucleus. They more likely involve one or few valence nucleons near this surface.
CHAPTER 4. NUCLEAR REACTIONS 49

Figure 4.11 – Cross sections for different reactions leading to the compound nucleus64Zn. The energy scale for the
Indecent protons and α's have been shifted so that they correspond to the same excitation energy. Figure taken from [2].

4.5.4 Technical requirements for the accelerators

Eventually, to perform precise measurements the beam must satisfy several criteria:
To measure angular distributions, the beam must be highly collimated and focused.
2. The energy must be sharply defined. It must be easily changed.
3. Intensity should be large enough to gather the necessary statistics. It should be constant and accurately measured.
Beam must be sharply pulsed to provide a reference signal.
5. The beam must be transported through a high-vacuum system to prevent degradation and production of unwanted.
products by collision with air molecules.
Chapter 5

Applications

The entire section on nuclear reactors in this chapter is heavily inspired by the very clear book by Pierre Charles.
[6].

5.1 Fission
As chemists we really ought to revise the decay scheme given above and insert the symbols Ba, La, Ce,
in place of Ra, Ac, Th. However, as 'nuclear chemists,' working very close to the field of physics, we cannot
bring ourselves yet to take such a drastic step which goes against all previous experience in nuclear physics.
There could perhaps be a series of unusual coincidences which have given us false indications.

As chemists, we really need to review the disintegration process given above and
insert the symbols Ba, La, Ce instead of Ra, Ac, Th. However, as 'nuclear chemists',
Working at the frontier with physics, we cannot yet take such a step that would go against
of all the other experiences in nuclear physics. There may be a series of coincidences that has us
gives bad directions.
O. Hahn and F. Straßmann,¨ On the detection and behavior of the irradiation of uranium using
Neutrons produced by alkaline earth metals, The Natural Sciences 27, p. 11 (January 1939)

At first sight, this result seems very hard to understand. The formation of elements much below uranium.
has been considered before, but was always rejected for physical reasons, so long as the chemical evidence
was not entirely clear cut. The emission, within a short time, of a large number of charged particles may be
regarded as excluded by the small penetrability of the 'Coulomb barrier', indicated by Gamov's theory of
alpha decay.
On the basis, however, of present ideas about the behaviour of heavy nuclei, an entirely different and
essentially classical picture of these new disintegration processes suggests itself. On account of their close
packing and strong energy exchange, the particles in a heavy nucleus would be expected to move in a collective
which has some resemblance to the movement of a liquid drop. If the movement is made sufficiently
violent by adding energy, such a drop may divide itself into two smaller drops.

At first glance, this seems difficult to understand. The formation of elements well below the uran...
a year long considered in the past, but always rejected for physical reasons, as long as the proof
chemical was not clearly delineated. The emission, for a short duration, of a large number of particles
right charges excluded due to the low permeability of the 'Coulomb barrier', given by the theory
of Gamov of the degrowth
However, based on current ideas concerning the behavior of heavy nuclei, an image
the complementary and essentially classical difference of this new disintegration process appears from it
Even. Due to their confinement and their strong energy exchanges, one can expect that the parties-
nuclei in heavy nuclei have a collective motion that resembles that of a liquid droplet. If the
The movement is sufficiently violent due to the energy, such a drop could split into two drops.

50
CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS 51

smaller.
Lise Meitner and O.R. Frisch, Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction
Nature, 143, 239-240, (Feb. 11, 1939)

5.1.1 Cores possibles

Certain heavy nuclei, such as uranium or plutonium, can undergo fission if they are bombarded by a neutron.
With other elements - mostly transuranic ones - they can also undergo spontaneous fission. During this
reaction, the nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei with the emission of neutrons and other particles. The products of
Fission, rich in neutrons, are radioactive. The distribution of fission products of uranium hit by a neutron
Low energy is given in figure 5.1. It is not symmetrical.

Figure 5.1 - Distribution of fission products of uranium 235 struck by a low-energy neutron. The image is
taken from Wikipedia.

The energy released by this reaction is very high, on the order of 200 MeV for uranium 235, which makes it appealing.
Thus, if we consider a typical fission reaction,
92 141
n+2935
2 U→36Kr+56 Ba+3n, (5.1)

Q=173.3MeV(m 235 U =235,0439231u,m 92 Kr =91,9261528uetm 141 Ba =140,9144064u), or 1.67×1013J/mol.

This represents 7 orders of magnitude more than the combustion of methane. Furthermore, unlike radioactivity,
this reaction can be provoked and controlled.
The only fissile nuclei under the impact of a thermal neutron are uranium.233And you235U, as well as plutonium
239Pu and241Only uranium-235 exists in nature, and that is why it is used to produce energy.

Uranium-238, which is more abundant, can be fissionable under the impact of a higher energy neutron.
M
21.àhw
oscinw
reoT
s-cV
ivt,flw
hcsinaelcfi,[Link]
v)houynpseftraignbitaublcm
ihoer
weaker than for uranium-235 bombarded by a thermal neutron. In a standard reactor, like those found in France,
CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS 52

Uranium 238 represents just over 95% of the fuel, but is the source of only 7% of events.
Fission. But its interest lies mainly in the fact that it is said to be fertile because, after absorbing a neutron, it decays for
give plutonium-239
β− β−
n+ 23892U→239U→
92
239Np→239Pu.
93 94 (5.2)
The last two steps are done by disintegration.− .
Thorium-232 is also a fertile nucleus:
β− β−
n+ 23290Th233Th→ 233 233
90 Pa→ 91U. 92 (5.3)

Again, the last two steps are done by disintegration.− . The232It90is much more abundant than uranium.
in nature, but for now, we do not know how to make one work rthuoim [Link]

5.1.2 Description of fission

Although nuclear fission was discovered in 1939, there is still no complete description of the phenomenon.
What we know is that it is a large amplitude collective deformation, as shown in figure 5.2.
It is therefore very complex to model.

Figure 5.2 – Successive forms of the nucleus on its way to fission.

A constant volume, the deformation of the core will mainly change the surface which will be larger. In the model
From the liquid drop, it is unfavorable and the energy tends to bring the nucleus back to its spherical shape. At high deformation,
Coulomb energy tends to separate the two preformed fragments. Between the two, the system goes through a
potential barrier called fission barrier. See figure 5.3.
For very large nuclei, the Coulomb repulsion is very strong. The fission barrier will not be very high and it
corresponds to a slightly deformed nucleus. This means that a small deformation will lead to fission. On the other hand, for
lighter nuclei, the fission barrier will be greater and for a very deformed nucleus. One can therefore deform strongly.
the core without it fissioning.
For heavy nuclei like plutonium and actinides, the shell corrections applied to the model of the
liquid droplets make the barrier possibly more complex. See figure 5.4. There is the appearance of what is called
fission isomers.
For certain very heavy nuclei, there is spontaneous fission which constitutes one of the modes of
degradation, as we have seen before. It is characterized by a half-life and is due to the tunneling effect through the barrier.
of potential. For uranium-238, this half-life is 5.9×1015ans.
In nuclear reactors, fission is triggered by a collision with a neutron that slightly excites the nucleus.
We talk about induced fission. For uranium-235, the mass energy brought by the neutron, even in
CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS 53

Figure 5.3 - Potential energy as a function of nuclear deformation.

Figure 5.4 - Potential energy as a function of nuclear deformation.

Neglecting its kinetic energy, it is above the potential barrier. Fission is therefore possible. This is not the case.
For uranium-238, its induced fission always occurs through tunneling effect. It remains rare.
When the compound nucleus is obtained during a collision between heavy ions, it is often excited. Fission then is
described as a thermal diffusion problem over the potential barrier. It competes with
the emission of light particles.
The distribution of fission fragments presented in figure 5.1 is dominated by the properties of
nuclei products and particularly their magicity.

5.1.3 Section efficacy of fission and chain reaction

Figure 5.5 shows the effective fission cross-section of uranium and plutonium 239 as a function of energy.
of the neutron incident. Note that both axes are on a logarithmic scale. We see that if one wishes to have a large
the number of fission events, it is better to bombard uranium 235 with low-energy neutrons.
When fissioning, uranium 235 emits between 0 and 6 energetic neutrons, with an average of 2.5. These neutrons can,
their turn, to provoke the fission of other uranium-235 nuclei. And so on... This is called a chain reaction.
The neutrons produced from fission are said to be fast because they have an energy greater than 1 MeV. However, the effective cross-section of
The fission of uranium is all the greater when the energy of the neutrons is low. To slow down the neutrons, we make them
to impose shocks on a material called moderator. The energy transfer is maximal when the neutron hits a nucleus.
which has the same mass. Neutrons are not slowed down with hydrogen because it is too dangerous, but with water.
In reactors, water also serves as a heat transfer fluid. Other moderators have been or are used: graphite,
CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS 54

Figure 5.5 – Effective fission sections of uranium and plutonium. The two axes are on a logarithmic scale.
The image is taken from the site: [Link]

associated with gas as a heat carrier (this sector is now abandoned in France), or heavy water. This is the case
particularly in Canada with the Candu reactors. In a molecule of heavy water, one hydrogen atom is replaced
by a deuterium atom.
It takes about 18 collisions to thermalize a neutron with hydrogen, 115 with carbon, and more than 2000 with
of uranium.
The main problem with water is that the effective capture cross-section of a thermal neutron is quite high, on the order of
from 0.66 barn against 1.2×10−3barn for heavy water or 3.7×10−3for graphite, two other moderators used.
With water, there are not enough neutrons available to use natural uranium. Therefore, enriched uranium is used.
enriched in uranium 235. We will return to this point.
Not all produced neutrons cause a fission reaction. Some are captured by uranium or other materials.
cores present in the heart of the reactor. If the number of neutrons produced is greater than the number of neutrons
If it is above, the chain reaction escalates and becomes explosive. If it is below, the chain reaction will extinguish.
all alone. In the event of a tie, it is the critical regime. The criticality accident is more feared by the nuclear industry. There is
unfortunately, some examples like Mayak in Russia in a waste storage facility in the years
1950 or more recently in Tokai-mura, Japan, in a enrichment plant.
Neutrons have two possible origins: they are either emitted immediately during fission (prompt neutrons),
or later, by fission products (delayed neutrons). Nuclear reactors operate in critical mode, the
chain reaction controlled by absorbing a certain amount of neutrons. Without the delayed neutrons, the reaction
would certainly be difficult to control. The atomic bomb is in a supercritical state by counting only the neutrons.
There are projects for subcritical reactors where the lack of neutrons is compensated by a source of
Neutrons. Such reactors, if they were developed, could consume thorium or transmute some waste.
radioactive.
The number of uranium nuclei in the core decreases over time, while the number of fission products,
which absorb neutrons, increases. The control of the nuclear reaction is done using control rods that ab-
absorb the neutrons and which are more or less lowered and with poisons dissolved in the moderator: generally of
bore and gadolinium.
A chain reaction could be started from the spontaneous fission of uranium or cosmic neutrons.
Dans un re´acteur, elle est de´marre´e par une source de neutrons. En ge´ne´ral, on utilise une´metteurαavec du be´ryllium-9
and one obtains a neutron flux from the reaction,
12
9 Be+α→C+n. (5.4)

5.1.4 The fuel cycle

The uranium atom essentially has two isotopes in nature, uranium-235 and uranium-238. They have the same
chemical properties, but have a slightly different mass. On the other hand, the nucleus of the atom has properties
CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS 55

different: uranium-235 fissions easily when bombarded by a neutron, but not uranium-238.
In nature, the proportion between these two isotopes is 0.7% for uranium-235, the fissile one, and 99.3% for
Uranium-238. There is also a very small amount of uranium-234 (0.0057%). Except for the Candu heavy water reactors.
In Canada, India, and Korea, which operate with natural uranium, nuclear reactors use a fuel.
which contains between 3.5% and 5% of uranium-235. In compact nuclear reactors like those present in submarines
In marine environments, the enrichment rate is much higher (between 50 and 90%). Therefore, natural uranium must be enriched.
uranium-235: it's a complex and industrially costly step.
According to the HCTISN [18], on average over the three years 2007, 2008, and 2009, 8,100 tons of natural uranium were required.
to produce 1,033 tons of nuclear fuel that powered the French nuclear fleet. The rest is uranium.
impoverished. All the flows described here are included in the diagram of figure 5.6.

Nuclear cycle?
8,100 tons of natural uranium
enrichment
fuel 7,067 tons of depleted uranium
91.5 t of DU

1033 tons of fuel Mox RU

Reactor reactor reactor

+
8.5 t of Pu
reprocessing

unprocessed 800 tons of reprocessed uranium

500 tons of reprocessed U 300 t of U

Russia
37 tons of RU
263 tons of DU

3.9% of burned fuel is recycled this saves 12% of nat. U

Figure 5.6 – Summary of flows in what is commonly referred to as the nuclear 'cycle'.

Depleted uranium is not considered waste, as a small part is used as we will see later.
late and the rest is potentially usable in the future if the IV generation of nuclear reactors comes to fruition. It is
so a strategic stock.
These figures, however, must be handled with caution because, in this same report, it can be read that in 2008 EDF imported
8,695 tonnes of natural uranium for its fleet. This is 7.3% more than the announced average value. Moreover, in
Depending on the price of uranium, the enrichment process will be more or less intense.
At the exit of the reactor, only a part of the uranium-235 contained in the spent fuels has been consumed: some remains.
on the order of 0.8 to 0.9%, that is to say more than in nature. Uranium-238, when bombarded by neutrons,
It tends to transform through radioactivity into plutonium, which can fission more easily. In short, part of
CHAPTER 5. APPLICATIONS 56

The fuel that comes out of nuclear power plants is presumably reusable. According to the operators, it's 96%. This is the subject of
reprocessing aimed at chemically separating valuable materials from ultimate waste. Some countries such as
Sweden or the United States have chosen not to reprocess. Everything that comes out of their plants therefore constitutes waste.
last.
Out of the 1,033 tons of new fuels that enter the French reactor fleet annually, 850 tons per
They are retired after a stay of 3 years in the reactor and a longer cooling time. Areva extracts 8.5 tons.
of plutonium and 800 tons of so-called reprocessed uranium. The rest consists of ultimate waste. As for the fuel
non-retired, it is not classified as waste because it could be retired one day.
With the 8.5 tons of plutonium mixed with 91.5 tons of depleted uranium, there are 100 tons of fuel.
MOx that is added to the 1,033 tonnes of fresh fuel. This recycled fuel can partially power.
22 reactors authorized in France. This corresponds on average to 20 refuels per year and produces the same energy as a
classic fuel containing 3.7% uranium-235.
Of the 800 tons of reprocessed uranium, 300 were sent to Russia, to Tomsk, for possible re-enrichment.
500 tonnes remaining are added each year to the strategic stock. Russia sends back 37 tonnes to France.
fuel per year and keeps the 263 tons of depleted uranium. The re-enriched reprocessed uranium fed two of the
reactors of the Cruas power plant, along the Rhône.
Recycling was therefore limited to 100 tons of MOx fuel and 37 tons of uranium-based fuel.
treatment, which adds to the 1,033 tons of conventional fuel in the reactors. The recycled fuels
are not retired a second time, nor recycled after their passage in the reactor. So there is only one recycling loop.
In total, there are 1,170 tons of spent fuel that comes out of the reactors per year. Thus, 8.5 tons of pl
tonium plus 37 tons of reprocessed uranium on 1,170 tons of fuel, that is only 3.9% recycling.
We are far from the 96% announced by the nuclear industry! If we add the depleted uranium, the 137 tons of fuel
Recycling produces a saving of 11.7% of natural uranium.
Following the nuclear disaster in Fukushima and the shutdown of many reactors, the price of uranium has sharply decreased.
and EdF has stopped the re-enrichment of reprocessed uranium. Only plutonium is currently being recycled and the rate of
recycling is even lower.

5.2 Nuclear fusion

The first nuclear fusion reaction was achieved by M.L. Oliphant, P. Harteck, and E. Rutherford in 1932.
bombarding a deuterium nucleus against another deuterium nucleus. With light nuclei, the energy released is
It's very large, but it is very difficult to provoke this reaction. Nowadays, research on fusion is attempting to achieve the
next reaction
2 H+3H→He+n 4
(5.5)
which is easier to implement. The energy released is 17.5 MeV, or 1.68 x 1012J/mol. If we relate the energy
obtaining the mass of the fuel, we have an order of magnitude above the fission reaction. The neutron emission is very
engery
Deuterium may be extracted from seawater and tritium obtained from6 Li,
6 Li + n → He +43H. (5.6)

Thus, tritium can be produced in situ with the neutrons resulting from the fusion reaction after having been slowed down.
The difficulty essentially lies in triggering and controlling the reaction. Both gases must be confined.
to merge and maintain this confinement during the reaction. Moreover, the energetic neutrons pose
problems due to the damage they can cause. Except in nuclear weapons, fusion has found no
Currently, the ITER international project aims to test the feasibility of controlling a reaction.
fusion for very long term, to extract energy industrially.
This reaction is possible in stars where the gravitational mass ensures confinement. The energy released by
Nuclear reactions prevent the star from collapsing on itself.
Reference of the first fusion reaction:
- M.L. Oliphant, P. Harteck and E. Rutherford, Transmutation Effects Observed with Heavy Hydrogen, Nature, March
17, 1934, 133, p. 413; Proceedings of the Royal Society, A vol. 144, p. 692
Annex A

Kernel cards

There are several maps of the cores depending on the information one wants to include. Below are some maps that
mentioned in this course.
There are also online tables where you can click on each kernel to get information about their...
characteristics. Here are a few of them:
— [Link]
— [Link]
— [Link]
— [Link]

57
APPENDIX A. MAPS OF THE CORES 58

Figure A.1 – Year of discovery of the nuclei. Figure extracted from [14].
ANNEX A. MAPS OF THE CORES 59

Figure A.2 – Half-life of nuclei. Figure extracted from [14].

ANNEX A. CORE MAPS 60

Figure A.3 – Dominant mode of degradation of nuclei. Figure extracted from [14].
ANNEX A. CORE MAPS 61

Figure A.4 - Layer correction energy. Figure extracted from [17].

Bibliography

Books on nuclear physics

[1] Luc Valentin,Physique subatomique : noyaux et particules, Hermann (1975)
[2] Kenneth S. Krane,Introductory nuclear physics, John Wiley and Sons (1988)
[3] Eric Suraud,La matie`re nucle´aire, dese´toiles aux noyaux, Hermann (1998).
Jean-Louis Basdevant, James Rich and Michel Spiro, Nuclear Energy, Éditions de l'École Polytechnique (2002)
Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics, From Nuclear Structure to Cosmology, Springer (2005), available
online.
From the Atom to the Nucleus: A Historical Approach to Atomic Physics and Physics
nuclear, Ellipses (2006)
Pierre Charles, Nuclear Energy, Ellipses (2007). Very clear book.
Some chapters can be
downloaded from the home page of the first author:[Link]

Other books
Stephen M. Stigler, The History of Statistics, The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900, Cambridge, Massachusetts
setts, The Belknap press of Harvard University press 1986. An excellent book on the history of sciences with explanation
on the calculations.
Stephen T. Thornton and Andrew Rex, Modern Physics, de boeck (2010)
Hubert Krivine, The Earth, from myths to knowledge, Cassini (2011).
See also his article, History of the Age of the Earth, Images of Physics (CNRS, 2011), available online:
[Link] [Link]

Pedagogical articles
[11] Gregory Chaitin,The Limits of Reason, Scientific American, March 2006
[Link] chaitin/[Link]

Historical articles
Carmen J. Giunta, Department of Chemistry, Le Moyne College, New-York, Selected Classic Papers from the His-
History of Chemistry
[Link]
[13] H.A. Bethe, R.F. Bacher,Nuclear Physics A. Stationary States of Nuclei, Reviews of Modern Physics 8 (1936)
82-229

62
BIBLIOGRAPHY 63

Other articles
G. Audi, F.G. Kondev, M. Wang, B. Pfeiffer, X. Sun, J. Blachot, and M. MacCormick, The NUBASE2012 evaluation
of nuclear properties, Chinese Physics C36(2012) 1157 - 1286
G. Audi, M. Wang, A.H. Wapstra, F.G. Kondev, M. MacCormick, X. Xu, and B. Pfei ffer, The AME2012 atomic
mass evaluation I - Evaluation of input data, adjustment procedures, Chinese Physics C26(2012) 1287 - 1602 ; M.
Wang, G. Audi, A.H. Wapstra, F.G. Kondev, M. MacCormick, X. Xu, and B. Pfeiffer, The AME2012 atomic mass
evaluation II - Tables, graphs and references, Chinese Physics C26(2012) 1603-2014.
Seealso[Link]
[16] Michael [Link],Mutual influence of terms in a semi-empirical mass formula, Nuclear Physics A 798 (2008)
2960
[17] Ragnar Bengtsson and Peter Mo¨ller,Nuclear physics : A non-disappearing magic trick, Nature 449 (2007) 411-413

Miscellaneous
High Committee for Transparency and Information on Nuclear Security, Opinion on the transparency of management
nuclear materials and waste produced at the different stages of the fuel cycle, July 12, 2010.
[Link] article=41