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 vii

Preface

In a recently published monograph G. Zhizhin, “Chemical Compound

Structures and the Higher Dimension of Molecules: Emerging Research and
Opportunities” (Zhizhin, 2017), the structures of the chemical compounds of
s -, p -, d – and f - elements of the table of Mendeleev (Mendeleev, 1934) are
systematically studied. It is shown that the molecules of most of them have
a dimension greater than three. The simplest of these compounds are binary
compounds formed by any two elements of the periodic system of elements.
Even Fersman (Fersman, 1937) found that most of the binary compounds
found in nature have structures from some limited set of structures. In the
monograph (Zhizhin, 2017) it is proved that all these structures have a higher
dimension (Table 1), i.e. their molecules form from a geometric point of view
polytopes of higher dimension.

Table 1. Binary compounds of the elements

The compounds d - and f

Type of the The compounds s – and p - elements with this type of
N elements with this type of
structure the structure
the structure
LiF, NaF, KF, LiCl, NaCl, KCl, MgS, RbCl, LiBr,
1 rock salt MnO, FeO, CoO, NiO, CdO NaBr,KBr, RbBr, LiI, CaS, NaI, KI, MgO, CaO, SrO,
BaO, SrS, BaS, PbS
2 Adamantane Ag2O, Cu2O, ZnS, CuCl Pb4O6, As4O6, Sb4O6, P4O4, SiCl4, BeF2, HgS
titanium
3 TiCl RbF, CsCl, CsF, CsBr, CsI
chloride
MnF2, CoF2, NiF2, CuF2,
4 Rutile MgF2, SnO2, PbO2
ZnF2, MnO2, MoO2
5 Wurtzite ZnO, CdO, ZnS BeO, AlN
CaF2, SrF2, BaF2, RbF2, AlF8, MgCl2, CaCl2, SrCl2, BaCl2,
CdF2, MnCl2, FeCl2, CoCl2,
6 Fluorite PbCl2, AlCl3, SiCl4, Li2O, Na2O, K2O, Rb2O, Cs2O, Li2S,
NiCl2, ZnCl2, CdCl2, Cu2S
Na2S, K2S, Rb2S
 Preface

The simplest compound of transition elements with three - dimensional

structure has a cubic unit cell, for example, oxides of transition elements.
Since such structures form chlorides, bromides and iodides of alkali metals,
one will refer to these structures rock salt structures. Many binary chemical
compounds have the structure as adamantane molecule. In work of Zhizhin
(2014a) it was proved that the adamantane molecule consisting of 10 carbon
atoms that make up the bulk of the unit cell of the diamond has of dimension
4. In compounds Ag2O, Cu2O at locations 10 of the carbon atoms are oxygen
atoms, and atoms of copper and silver are arranged linearly between oxygen
atoms. Many drugs are also a group of 10 carbon atoms as in the adamantane
molecule. Among the inorganic and organometallic compounds have a number
of structural analogues of adamantane (Table 1). All of these compounds
have dimension 4 or even higher.
A series of binary compounds have a structure in the form of cube with
centrum as in titanium chloride at which titanium ions are arranged in the
centrum of the cube bat chlorine ions are arranged in vertices of the cube.
Can to call these structures titanium chloride structure. Haw it is shown in
work of Zhizhin & Diudea (2016) this structure has dimension 4.
A series of binary compound have a structure of the mineral rutile TiO2.
In this compound each titanium atom is surrounded by six the oxygen atoms
in the octahedral coordination. To compounds with such structure to concern
for example fluorides of copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, cobalt, nickel.
One will call these structures rutile structure. In work of Zhizhin & Diudea
(2016) it is shown that octahedron with centrum have dimension 4. Therefore,
all these structures have dimension 4. A series of binary compounds have
structure of wurtzite - mineral ZnS, in which from compound ZnS with the
structure of the adamantane zinc atom and sulfur atom have the tetrahedron
coordination. The centrum each tetrahedron is vertex of another tetrahedron.
The wurtzite structure have compounds ZnO, CdS, ZnS. The dimension of
this structure defined in monograph Zhizhin (2017). This equal to 4. A series
of binary compounds have a fluorite structure – mineral CaF2 (fluorspar).
Each calcium ion in this structure is in cube surrounded by fluorine ions,
and each fluorine ion is in tetrahedron surrounded by calcium ions. The
fluorite structure have for example chlorides of transition metals (Table 3).
The dimension of this compounds also equal to 4 (Zhizhin, 2017).
Silicon, germanium, tin and lead also form a molecule of adamantane or
a molecule that is topologically close to the adamantane molecule (Gillespie,
1972; Gillespie & Hargittai, 1991). The dimension of these molecules is 4
or more than four. Phosphorus, antimony, arsenic and bismuth form already

viii
Preface

considered polytopes for other elements: a tetrahedron with a center, an

octahedron with a center, an adamantane molecule. All these molecules have a
dimensionality of 4 or higher. Chlorine, bromine and iodine show the greatest
possible numbers of oxidation states, interacting with previously considered
elements. The dimensions of these compounds are often higher than three.
Halogen compounds lead to molecules of higher dimensionality. For example,
the iodine heptafluoride molecule IF7 has the form of a 6 - simplex with a
center whose dimension is 7. Noble gases in conjunction with other elements
form molecules with tetrahedral coordination of higher dimension.
The complex molecules have even greater dimensions, for example,
biomolecules (Zhizhin, 2016, 2017).
When the molecules interact with each other, their geometry plays an
important role. Therefore, molecules are able to have higher dimensions,
which influences how they interact with other molecules leading to advances
in various fields including nanomedicine, nanotoxicology and quantum
biology. Taking into account the important role of geometry in the interaction
of higher - dimensional molecules, this monograph is devoted to the study of
the geometry of polytopes of higher dimension that are models of molecules.
It should be noted that previous studies of the geometry of polytopes (for
example, Delone, 1961; Coxeter, 1963; Grunbaum, 1967; Zhigler, 1995;
Zhizhin, 2014b) belonged to polytopes of dimension 3 and less often 4. At
the same time, higher dimensions were not considered practically. In addition,
these studies were of an abstract nature, i.e. they did not contact specific
structures of chemical compounds.
The proof that many molecules have a form in the form of polytopes of
higher dimension requires a detailed study of the geometry of these polytopes.
This is the subject of this monograph. In addition, it should indicate the
possibility of manifesting higher dimensions, not only in the structures of
chemical compounds, but also in other areas of natural phenomena close to
man. It is required to enumerate the geometric forms and features of these
manifestations, i.e. to classify the forms of polytopes of higher dimension,
not limited to polytopes of dimensionality 4. Based on the results of studies
published in the recently published monograph of Zhizhin (Zhizhin, 2017),
their further development and solution of a number of problems arising in
these studies is necessary.
It is required to consider in detail the structures of the boundary complexes
of polytopes of higher dimension, paying attention in these structures to
the belonging of faces of lower dimension to faces of higher dimension. It
is important, for example, to analyze the structure of chemical compounds
formed by valence bonds.
ix
 Preface

It is required to consider groups of symmetry transformations of polytopes

of higher dimension. Taking into account, that polytopes of smaller dimension
enter in their boundary complexes, it is necessary that these studies be based
on studies of the symmetry transformations of polytopes entering their
boundary complexes.
Zhizhin (Zhizhin, 2017) found that polytopes, which are products of
polytopes, are of great importance in the structures of chemical compounds.
These polytopes are called polytopic prismahedrons. They do not belong to the
class of simplicial polytopes, which are sufficiently well studied. Therefore,
it is necessary to pay attention to the geometry of polytopic prismahedrons
with allowance for the values ​​of incidence of elements of different dimensions
of their boundary complexes.
In particular, it is necessary to pay attention to a new type of polytopes,
so - called poly-incident polytopes, in which simultaneously there are faces
of some dimension incident to faces of higher dimensions, with different
incidence values. Polytopes dual to polytopic prismahedrons are also of interest.
It is required to study in detail the structure of n – cross - polytopes,
especially for large values of n. Since the announced, so - called Gosset
polytope, used in various mathematical works, has a dimension of 8, and its
boundary complex includes cross - polytopes of dimension 7. The question of
the possibility of simultaneous presence in polytopes of high dimensionality
of faces in the form of cross polytopes and polytopes of another form.
The proof of the existence of higher - dimensional clusters, cited in the
works of Zhizhin and Dudea (Zhizhin & Diudea, 2016; Zhizhin, 2017;
Diudea, 2018) requires the study of the hierarchical filling of a space of higher
dimension and analysis of scaling processes in these fillings.
Until now, the eighteenth problem of Hilbert on the construction of spaces
of higher dimension by means of congruent figures remains unsolved. In
this context, this problem is posed as the construction of spaces of higher
dimension with the help of polytopic prismahedrons.
To substantiate physically the possibility of the existence of molecules of
higher dimension, the question of the existence of solutions of the Schrödinger
equation, which describes the distribution of electrons in the vicinity of the
atomic nucleus, in a space of higher dimension, is of considerable importance.
In the monograph Zhizhin (Zhizhin, 2017) it was first proved that the
Schrödinger equation has a solution in four - dimensional space. It is required
to solve the problem of the existence of solutions of the Schrödinger equation
in spaces of higher dimension.

x
Preface

All these issues are reflected in this monograph, which consists of nine
chapters.
In the Chapter 1 “Polytopes of higher dimension in the Nature”, three
important examples of the manifestation of polytopes of higher dimension in
Nature are considered. This chapter contains an analysis of the analysis of phase
transitions of the second kind in condensed media. They are characterized by
a change in the symmetry of the structure, for the explanation of experimental
data, which requires the attraction of spaces of higher dimension. Changing
the structure is accompanied by a scaling process, i.e. the change in the size
of the unit cells of the structure during the phase transition. This leads in
this way to the appearance in structures of polytopes of higher dimension.
The Chapter 1 also contains an analysis of the structure of quasicrystals. It
is shown that the diffraction patterns of quasicrystals can be considered as a
projection onto a two - dimensional plane of the structure of a space of higher
dimension. This reveals a hidden order in quasi - crystals, not previously
detected. An elementary cell of the quasicrystal structure is constructed,
which is a polytope of higher dimension. There is section devoted of the
structure of the DNA molecule. For the first time, taking into account the
higher dimensionality of the constituent DNA molecules, the geometrical
cause of the DNA molecule twisting into a spiral is revealed.
In the Chapter 2 “Boundary complexes and interior points of the polytopes”
structures of boundary complexes of regular n - dimensional polytopes:
n - cubes, n - simplexes, n - cross-polytopes are considered. In addition,
the structures of the boundary complexes of n -dimensional polytopes with
center are considered. It is proved that regular n - dimensional polytopes have
interior points, i.e. the boundary complexes do not occupy the entire volume
of polytopes. If the n - dimensional polytopes have a vertex in the center, then
the boundary complexes occupy the whole volume of the polytope. This is
important for describing the clusters to which the last section of the chapter
is devoted. The concept of a cluster surface of higher dimension corresponds
to the notion of a polytope boundary complex. If the boundary complex
occupies the entire volume of the polytope, this corresponds to the case
when the cluster surface coincides with its volume. The important for further
analysis property of boundary complexes of regular n - dimensional polytopes
is proved. The incidence coefficient of elements of n – cross -polytopes is
significantly higher than the corresponding incidence coefficients of elements
of n -simplexes and n - cubes.

xi
 Preface

In the Chapter 3 “The number of symmetry transformation of convex regular

polytopes in the n – space” symmetry transformations of regular polytopes of
dimension n (n - cubes, n - simplexes of n - cross - polytopes) are considered,
using the symmetry transformations of their facets. It is investigated how the
symmetry transformations of the facets lead to symmetry transformations of
the polytope under the condition of continuity of the polytope as a whole.
It is proved that the number of transformations of a regular n - polytope is
equal to the product of the number of symmetry transformations of the facets
by the number of facets.
In the Chapter 4 “Polytopic prismahedrons” the structure of the product
of the polytopes are considered. The products of the polytopes are polytopes
that do not belong to the well-studied class of simplicial polytopes. Therefore,
their research is of independent interest. In addition, the products of polytopes
(polytopic prismahedrons) provide a solution to the 18th Hilbert problem
in a space of higher dimension - constructing spaces of higher dimension
from congruent figures. Analytical dependences of the characteristics of
the product structure of polytopes as functions of the characteristics of
the structures of the factors are obtained. The geometric properties of the
boundary complexes of polytopic prismahedrons and their interior points
are investigated. Polytopic prismahedrons can be the result of interaction of
molecules of higher dimension. The possibility of simultaneous coordinated
hierarchical and translational filling of n - dimensional spaces by polytopic
prismahedrons is shown.
In the Chapter 5 “Poly – incident and dual polytopes” polytopes, dual to
polytopic prismahedrons, are considered. It is shown that these polytopes
form a new class of polytopes. In each polytope of this class elements of
the same dimension simultaneously there are, but with different incidence
values of elements of lower dimension with respect to elements of higher
dimensionality. These polytopes of a new type are called poly - incident
polytopes. The geometry of specific poly - incident polytopes and dual
polytopes are studied, including for large dimensionality of polytopes. The
existence of a previously unknown polytope consisting of 100 tetrahedrons
is proved. Obtained his image with a list of all its components.
In the Chapter 6 “The detailed structure of n – cross – polytopes and
polytopes with their participation “the structure of n – cross - polytopes
at large n is investigated in detail. Confirmed by the construction that n –
cross - polytopes can only be simplicial polytopes, although from the sets
of tetrahedrons entering these polytopes can be distinguished by n – cross
- polytopes of lower dimension. Polytopes, dual to n - cross-polytopes, are

xii
Preface

constructed, and new images of large dimension n - cubes are obtained. It is

proved that n – cross - polytopes can be faces of polytopes of higher dimension
if these polytopes are polytopic prismahedrons. A detailed analysis of the
possibility of the existence of the Gosset (Gosset, 1900) polytope is carried
out. According to Gosset’s statements, this polytope should include 7 – cross
- polytopes as facets. The number of facets of the simplex type and the cross
- polytopes type specified by Gosset was adopted as the initial conditions.
Taking into account the law on the change in incidence of faces, proved in this
book, depending on their dimension and the type of polytope, it is established
that the number of faces of various dimensions and types that Gosset points
out for the polytope in his name contradict the law of incidence that was
unknown to him. Thus, it is proved that the Gosset polytope does not exist.
In the Chapter 7 the hierarchical fillings of n - dimensional spaces
with geometric figures are studied, accompanied by a change in their size
(scaling). The scaling process in this case is determined only by the geometric
characteristics of the figure. Two ways of hierarchical filling of space by
figures are defined. The modes of hierarchical filling of spaces by plane,
three -dimensional, four - dimensional and five - dimensional figures are
investigated. The geometric progressions that characterize a discrete series
of figures in the scaling process are calculated, depending on the shape of
the figure and its dimension.
In the Chapter 8 it is proved that the stationary Schrödinger equation has a
solution in principle for any dimension of the space around the nucleus of the
atom. As an example, the solution of the stationary Schrödinger equation in
five - dimensional space is given. It is shown that, as a result of the solution
of the Schrödinger equation in p - dimensional space, the electron system
in the vicinity of the nucleus is characterized by quantum numbers in the
number p + 1: the principal quantum number, the orbital quantum number,
the spin quantum number and the p - 2 magnetic quantum numbers.
In the Chapter 9 it is proved that polytopic prismahedrons have the
necessary properties for partitioning the n - dimensional spaces of a face into
a face. Consequently, they satisfy the conditions for solving the 18th Hilbert
problem (Hilbert, 1901) of constructing n - dimensional spaces. An analytical
method for constructing dimensional spaces from polytopic prismahedrons
is developed. It is found that neighboring polytopic prismahedrons in these
partitions can have common geometric elements of any dimension or do not
have common elements. This refuted a priori the accepted condition in the
theory of stereohedrons (Delone, 1961) about the necessity that adjacent
stereohedrons of dimension n have common faces of dimension n - 1 or have
no common elements.
xiii
 Preface

It is shown that the set of lines arising in the hierarchical filling of spaces
simultaneously allow translational symmetry. Therefore, simultaneous
coordinated hierarchical and translational filling of spaces is possible.
A modern concept of describing the structure of matter is formulated. It
is free of previously accepted limiting conditions and taking into account
experimental data on the scaling process in various physical systems, as well
as the formation of structures characteristic of quasi - crystals.
The subject of the book is the study of the geometry of polytopes of higher
dimension, characteristic for molecules and chemical compounds established
in the author’s previous monograph “Chemical Compound Structures and
the Higher Dimension of Molecules: Emerging Research and Opportunities”
(Zhizhin, 2017). Since chemical compounds are the basis of the substance
from which all living organisms, the environment, the bowels of the Earth and
the whole noosphere are built, the subject of the book is important for various
fields of knowledge: physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology, geology and
various branches of these sciences.
The target audience of the book are students, university professors,
researchers of research centers.
This book, together with the author’s previous book “Chemical Compound
Structures and the Higher Dimension of Molecules: Emerging Research and
Opportunities” (Zhizhin, 2017), makes a significant contribution to the notion
of the structure of matter and, in general, to the creation of a new scientific
basis for modern natural science.

REFERENCES

Coxeter, H.S.M. (1963). Regular Polytopes. London: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Delone, B. (1961). Proof of the main theorem of the theory of stereohedrons.
Reports of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 138(6), 1270–1272.
Diudea, M. V. (2018). Hypercube Related Polytopes. Iranian J. Math. Chem.,
9(1), 1–8.
Fersman, A. E. (1937). Geochemistry (Vol. 3). Leningrad: ONTI.
Gillespie, R. J. (1972). Molecular Geometry. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company.

xiv
Preface

Gillespie, R. J., & Hargittai, I. (1991). The VSEPR Model of Molecular

Geometry. London: Allyn & Bacon.
Gosset, T. (1900). On the regular and semi-regular figures in space of
n-dimensions. The Messenger of Mathematics, 29, 43–48.
Grunbaum, B. (1967). Convex Polytopes. London: Springer.
Mendeleev, D. I. (1934). The periodic law of chemical elements. Moscow,
Leningrad: Gos. Chemical and Technical Publishing.
Zhizhin, G. V. (2014a). On the higher dimension in nature. Biosphere, 6(4),
313–318.
Zhizhin, G. V. (2014b). World – 4D. St. Petersburg: Polytechnic Service.
Zhizhin, G. V. (2016). The structure, topological and functional dimension of
biomolecules. J. Chemoinformatics and Chemical Engineering, 5(2), 44–58.
Zhizhin, G. V. (2018). Chemical Compound Structures and Higher Dimension
of Molecules: Emerging Research and Opportunities. Hershey, PA: IGI
Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-4108-0
Zhizhin, G. V., & Diudea, M. V. (2016). Space of Nanoworld. In M. V. Putz
& M. C. Mirica (Eds.), Sustainable Nanosystems, Development, Properties,
and Applications (pp. 214–236). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
Zhizhin, G. V., Khalaj, Z., & Diudea, M. V. (2016). Geometrical and topology
dimensions of the diamond. In A. R. Ashrafi & M. V. Diudea (Eds.), Distance,
symmetry and topology in carbon nanomaterials (pp. 167–188). London:
Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31584-3_12
Ziegler, G. M. (1995). Lectures on Polytopes. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-
4613-8431-1

xv
 1

Chapter 1
Polytopes of Higher
Dimension in the Nature

ABSTRACT
Areas of research into the phenomena of nature in which the influence of
polytopes of higher dimension is described in this chapter. These include
studies of the structures of many chemical compounds whose molecules exhibit
the properties of polytopes of higher dimension. This leads to the creation
of higher-dimensional stereochemistry. Phase transitions of the second kind
are accompanied by a change in the symmetry of the structure of matter, the
description of which, in agreement with the experimental data, requires the
attraction of spaces of higher dimension. Elementary cells of quasicrystals,
having the form of polytopic prismahedrons, are given (polytopes of higher
dimension). The structure of DNA as sequence of the higher dimensional
polytopes are given.

INTRODUCTION

Visual image of any object on the retina of the human eye is two - dimensional.
For this reason, any object is perceived initially as a two - dimensional one.
Similarly, we touch only the surface of objects, that is, the palpable image
of objects has again two dimensions. The idea of three -dimensionality of
an object forms only as a result of the comparison of mismatched images in
the right and left eye, this difference being observed in motion. Comparison
is a result of thinking and judgment appears as a result of it.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-6968-8.ch001

Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 Polytopes of Higher Dimension in the Nature

Therefore, even the three - dimensional conception of objects is an abstract

idea and, therefore, it is difficult for many people. The way of abstraction
leads us to the concept of space, i.e. to a conceptual space (space studied by
geometry - geometrical space, (Poincare, 1985)). This conceptual space arose
on the basis the perception of space, i.e. it based on the perceptual space (the
space of ideas (Poincare, 1985)). A perceptual space itself is a reflection of
the real material space. Perceptual space is an image of the real space, which
exists regardless of whether we perceive it or not, and on what the perception
we get from it (Coleman, 1970). However, given that perceptual space is the
result of mental activity, the image of the real space is ambiguous. It may take
into account the different human views about surrounding world, as well as
either properties of the world that seem the most important to a person in the
given concrete circumstances. It is also the reason for co - existence of different
geometries. It should be borne in mind that the geometrical axioms are neither
a priori synthetic judgments nor experimental facts. They are conventional
provisions (agreement): choosing between all possible agreements, we are
guided by experimental facts, but the choice is free and limited only by the
need to avoid any contradiction “(Poincare, 1985).
Historically two main concepts of the space formed within which there were
a lot of modifications of these concepts and related geometries. According to
the first of these concepts associated with the names of Aristotle and Leibniz,
the real space is a property of position of material objects. It is inextricably
linked with the matter. The development of these ideas led to the well- known
philosophical theses that there is no space without matter, just as there is
no matter without space, and that space is a form of existence of the matter.
According to the second of these concepts, associated with the names of
Democritus and Newton, space is the receptacle of all the material objects
having no influence on space (Einstain, 1930). Exactly this idea of space
was determinative for many centuries and serve as philosophical foundation
of Euclidean geometry (Euclid, 2012). According to this view geometric
space is continuous, endless, three - dimensional, uniform (all points of space
are identical to each other), isotropic (all lines passing through a point are
identical to each other).
Ideas of Leibniz in his time did not have any support, because they
lead to ambiguity of Euclidean geometry. N.I. Lobachevsky’s discovery
of non-Euclidean noncontradictory geometry according to which through
the point outside straight line more than one parallel lines can be drawn on
the plane initiated rapid development of geometry. It is important that N.
I. Lobachevsky associated geometry with physics and space with matter

2
Polytopes of Higher Dimension in the Nature

(Lobachevsky, 1945). The works of Lobachevsky at non - Euclidean geometry

it were continued by B. Riemann. In his famous lecture “On the hypotheses
that lie at the foundations of geometry” (Riemann, 1854) he introduces the
concept of n - extended manifold. It is essential that the n – dimensional
extension it is determined by B. Riemann without introduction of infinite
spaces. Moreover, the infinity of space is obviously contrary to the views of
B. Riemann on n - dimensional extension. Definition it B. Riemann initially
considers a finite region, and as a sign of manifold n - dimension manifold
the position in this manifold is characterized by a change in n - dimensional
(“simple”) of extended values. B. Riemann showed that a manifold of (n
+ 1) - dimensions is a manifold of 1 - st dimension, consisting of elements
(pixels) n - dimensions. Three - dimensional space can be considered as a
special case of n - dimensions manifold.
On the basis of the above representations, the geometric shapes of many
molecules were investigated (Zhizhin, 2017). The study showed that almost
all elements of the periodic system of Mendeleev to announce in the chemical
compounds the valence is higher than the valence determined by the number
of the group in the periodic system. To explain this in the scientific literature
resorts to assumptions about various mechanisms of electron interaction.
Practical all these compounds form molecules of higher dimension (polytopes
of higher dimension), determined by the Euler - Poincaré equation (Poincare,
1895). The existence of closed objects of higher dimension in a space of
lower dimension does not contradict Riemann’s geometry, which assumes the
boundedness of a space with a given dimension. Images of many molecules
of higher dimension are given. In particular, new images of biomolecules
having high dimensional values were obtained.
In this chapter, as an illustration of the importance of polytopes of higher
dimension in describing nature, three complex objects are selected: structures
that arise in condensed media during phase transitions of the second kind;
structure of quasicrystals and DNA molecules.

GEOMETRIC FEATURES OF PHASE

TRANSITIONS OF THE SECOND KIND

The behavior of systems in the vicinity of the critical point - the point of
phase transition of the second order has been studied by researchers for several
decades (Fisher, 1965; Patashinskii & Pokrovsky, 1975; Izyumov &

3
 Polytopes of Higher Dimension in the Nature

Syromyatnikov, 1984). Different models of the media in the vicinity of the

critical state were built: classic continual gas, Heisenberg model of magnetism,
binary alloys, lattice gas, Ising`s model of magnetism (Fihser, 1965). When
building the model in each case the Hamiltonian of the system characterizing
its energy was recorded. It was found, in particular, that the models of
ferromagnetic and lattice gas in the vicinity critical point are equivalent. To
calculate the changes in the characteristics of the system (heat capacity,
spontaneous magnetization, etc.) the series resolution of the Hamiltonian in
the vicinity of the critical point according to the powers of temperature T
deviation from the critical temperature TC was used. Theoretically and
experimental the singular behavior of environment characteristics at the phase
transition of the second kind was discovered. Landau was the first (Landau,
1937) who linked the second order phase transition with breaking symmetry
of the body structure at the point of phase transition, i.e. with a decrease of
the order of the group symmetry structure. He introduced into consideration
the order parameter characterizing the phase transition. Subsequently, it was
found that the order parameter can have several components, i.e. it is a vector
(Landau & Lifshitz, 1964). The dimension of this vector coincides with the
dimension of irreducible representations of the symmetry group of high -
symmetry phase. The idea of ​​ Kadanov (Kadanov, 1966) about the merger
of unit cells (polytopes) in the high - symmetry phase into larger blocks
during the phase transition, acting in a new phase as the new elementary cells
was very productive in the study of critical phenomena. This idea (the idea
of scaling)
​​ was confirmed later experimentally and it allowed Wilson (Wilson,
1971 a, b) and Fischer (Fisher, 1972) to introduce for consideration to describe
the continuous phase transition system of differential equations, the so - called
renormalization group equations. The fact of changes in the size of the unit
cell (polytope) in the process of phase transition became the basis of the
principle of similarity in phase transitions, expressed in a power law of the
thermodynamic quantities change in phase transitions process (Fisher, 1965;
Patashinskii & Pokrovsky, 1975; Izyumov & Syromyatnikov, 1984), the
exponents of which are called critical indices. It was found that the equations
of renormalization group essentially depend on dimension of the space in
which the Hamiltonian of the system is studied. At that the space dimension
i equal to 4, as it turns out, has a special significance, as critical indices,
following from the theory of Landau coincide with the indices following
from the equation of the renormalization group at i = 4, and don`t coincide
when the space dimension equals to 3. Since, according to Landau’s theory,

4
Polytopes of Higher Dimension in the Nature

the dimension of the phase is 4, we are forced to consider a polytope of

dimension 4 as the unit cell, i.e. polytope of higher dimension. In this regard,
Wilson proposed to investigate the renormalization - group equations near
the selected value of i = 4, assuming the parameter ε = i - 4 to be small. Then
you can resolve the Hamiltonian in series according to powers ε, and then
return in the received results back to the familiar three dimensions, setting ε
= 1. At that it is important at what fixed points the phase transition process
comes to end. However, the peculiarities of achievement of fixed points of
equations system of phase transitions renormalization group especially for
large dimension of the order parameter have been investigated not enough,
both theoretically and the more-experimental.
In this section, the main attention is paid in particular to the qualitative
study of systems of differential equations of the renormalization group of
phase transitions with order parameter of higher dimensions. The use of
modern methods of qualitative research systems of differential equations in
multidimensional phase spaces allowed receive principally new results about
the nature of phase transitions drive for fixed points.

The System of Differential Equations of Phase Transitions

Renormalization Group

The energy of high - symmetry phase system in the point of phase transition
vicinity, according to the theory of Landau, is written in the form of the
Hamiltonian resolution in row to powers of order parameter. In this row the
terms with spatial derivatives taking into account, in the general case, uneven
distribution of the order parameter of the space shall be added, as well as
terms associated with complexity of order parameter. This energy equation
is called the Hamiltonian of Ginzburg - Landau. Each term in the row has a
coefficient ui , which is a function of temperature and, in the general case, of
pressure. The functions ui will ultimately represent the space phase coordinates
of a system of phase transitions renormalization group differential equations.
According to the ideas Kadanov – Wilson it`s necessary to carry out the
transition from the initial Hamiltonian H to subsequent Hamiltonians H ‘,
H’ ‘, H’ ‘’ ... (and, correspondingly, to the recursive variable ui' , ui'' , ui''' ... ) to
describe the process of integration of units. The fixed point of this process
will meet the necessary condition of the invariance of the Hamiltonian that
corresponds, considering the operator of the transition to be infinitesimal, to

5
 Polytopes of Higher Dimension in the Nature

the equilibrium position of the of differential equations system. In the vicinity

of the fixed point, according to the method of Wilson - Fisher the resolution
of the Hamiltonian in row according to powers of the parameter ε limited to
a small number of members due to of assumptions about its smallness is
used. The result is a system of differential equations for the recursive variables,
in which superscripts already can be omitted. The number of variables in the
resulting system is equal to or less than the number of irreducible representations
of the symmetry group of high-symmetry phase, i.e. the dimension of the
order parameter is equal to or greater than the number of variables in a system
of differential equations of phase transitions renormalization group (Mukamel,
1975; Mukamel & Krinsky, 1976). The systems with dimensions of order
parameter more than 3 are of particular interest, as these cases correspond
to phases symmetry space group (Mukamel, 1975). The system of differential
equations of the renormalization group in this case is more than three equations
and for their the methods of qualitative research equations shall be applied
in multidimensional phase spaces which were developed for solving problems
in the mechanics of liquid, gas and plasma (Anderson, 1963; Zhizhin, 1972;
Bogoyavlensci, 1980; Zhizhin, 2004; Zhizhin, 2005).
In general, the system of differential equations of the renormalization
group of phase transitions has the form

du j
= f j (u1, u2 ,..., un ), j = 1 ÷ n. (1)
dt

This system of equations is autonomous because of the independent

variable t is not included in the right parts of this equations. An independent
variable can be represented by a dimensionless characteristic block size or
dimensionless (normalized) time. From the general form of the system (1)
one cannot a priori draw a conclusion about its features, in particular, about
the types of equilibrium positions, about the kinds of aggregates of equilibrium
positions, about the possibilities of transition from one position of equilibrium
to another equilibrium position. It is necessary for this aim to consider the
system (1) with specific functions fj types.

6
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