Noor institute of technology

Notes for CS306 – Introduction to

Python
(mid term preparation notes)

CS306 – Introduction to Python (Handout)

Credit Hours: 3 (Theory)
Offered by: Virtual University of Pakistan
Course Type: Core Course (e.g., BSCS, ADP in Business Analytics)

🎯 Course Objectives
• Understand the basics of Python programming.

• Develop logic-building and problem-solving skills.

• Use Python to perform data manipulation, file handling, and object-oriented programming.

🧠 Course Outline
1. Introduction to Python
• History and evolution

• Features of Python

• Installation and environment setup

• Writing your first Python program

2. Python Basics
1. Keywords and identifiers

2. Variables and constants

3. Data types: int, float, str, bool

4. Type casting

5. Basic input/output

6. Comments

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3. Operators and Expressions

1. Arithmetic, Assignment, Comparison

2. Logical, Identity, Membership

3. Operator precedence and associativity

4. Conditional Statements
• if, if-else, if-elif-else

• Nested conditions

5. Loops and Iteration

• while and for loops

• range() function

• Nested loops

• Loop control: break, continue, pass

6. Functions
1. Defining and calling functions

2. Arguments and return values

3. Default and keyword arguments

4. Variable scope

5. Recursion

7. Data Structures
Lists
• Creating, indexing, slicing

• Built-in functions (append, remove, sort, etc.)

Tuples
• Immutable lists

• Tuple operations

Dictionaries
• Key-value pairs

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• Accessing, updating, deleting elements

Sets
• Unordered collections

• Set operations (union, intersection, etc.)

8. String Manipulation
• Indexing and slicing

• String methods (upper, lower, split, join, find, etc.)

• Formatting strings

9. File Handling
• Opening and closing files

• Read and write operations

• Working with with statement

• Handling text and binary files

10. Exception Handling

1. try, except, finally

2. Raising exceptions

3. Built-in exception types

11. Object-Oriented Programming

• Classes and objects

• Constructors (__init__)

• Instance vs class variables

• Inheritance and polymorphism

• Encapsulation

12. Modules and Packages

1. Importing built-in and custom modules

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2. __name__ == "__main__" idiom

3. Creating packages with __init__.py

13. Python Standard Library Overview

• math, random, datetime, os, sys

• json and pickle for data serialization

• re for regular expressions

🧪 Assessment Breakdown
• Quizzes / Assignments / GDBs: 20%

• Midterm Exam: 20–30%

• Final Exam: 50–60%

📘 Recommended Tools
• Python (version 3.x)

• IDLE / PyCharm / VS Code

• Jupyter Notebooks (for experimentation)

📚 Useful Resources
1. CS306 Playlist on VU YouTube Channel

2. Official Python Docs

3. W3Schools Python

CS306 – Lecture 1: Introduction to Python Programming

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🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the evolution and background of Python.

• Recognize the features that make Python a popular programming language.
• Learn how to install Python and run your first program.
• Know the basic structure and syntax of a Python script.

🧠 1. What is Python?

Python is a high-level, interpreted, and general-purpose programming language. It was created

by Guido van Rossum and released in 1991.

📜 2. History and Evolution of Python

Version Year Highlights

Python 1.0 1991 First release, basic features

Python 2.0 2000 List comprehensions, garbage collection

Python 3.0 2008 Major update, not backward compatible

Note: Python 3.x is the current and recommended version. Python 2 reached end
of life in 2020.

🌟 3. Key Features of Python

• Simple and easy to learn: Python’s syntax is close to English.

• Interpreted: Code is executed line-by-line.
• Dynamically typed: No need to declare variable types.
• High-level language: Abstracts low-level details.
• Object-Oriented: Supports classes and objects.
• Extensive standard library: Ready-to-use modules.
• Platform Independent: Runs on Windows, Mac, Linux.
• Community Support: Strong developer community.

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🛠️ 4. Installing Python
🔗 Official Website:

Visit https://www.python.org

🧭 Installation Steps (Windows):

7. Download Python (prefer Python 3.x).

8. Run the installer.
9. Check the box “Add Python to PATH”.
10. Click Install Now.

🔍 Verify Installation:

Open Command Prompt and type:

python --version

Or:

python

🖥️ 5. Writing and Running Python Code

📌 Methods:

4. Interactive Mode:
o Open Command Prompt or Terminal
o Type python to enter interactive mode
o Example:
o >>> print("Hello, Python!")
5. Script Mode:
o Write code in a file with .py extension
o Save and run using:
o python filename.py

✅ 6. Your First Python Program

Example:
# This is a comment
print("Hello, world!")
Output:
Hello, world!

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🔤 7. Comments in Python

• Used to explain code

• Not executed by interpreter

Single-line comment:

# This is a comment

Multi-line (using triple quotes):

"""
This is a
multi-line comment
"""

📌 Summary

• Python is an easy-to-learn, powerful programming language.

• It supports multiple paradigms like procedural and object-oriented programming.
• You can use interactive or script mode to write Python code.
• Python 3.x is the recommended version.

📝 Practice Tasks

6. Install Python 3 from python.org.

7. Run Python in interactive mode and type:
8. print("Welcome to CS306!")
9. Create and save a .py file that prints your name.

CS306 – Lecture 2: Python Programming Basics

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the concept of variables and data types in Python.

• Learn about identifiers and naming rules.
• Practice basic input and output operations.
• Distinguish between comments and docstrings.

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📌 1. Identifiers in Python
✅ Definition:

Identifiers are the names used to identify variables, functions, classes, modules, or other objects.

📋 Rules for Naming Identifiers:

• Can contain letters (a–z, A–Z), digits (0–9), and underscores (_)
• Must begin with a letter or underscore (not a digit)
• Cannot be a Python keyword (e.g., if, while, class, etc.)
• Case-sensitive: Name, name, and NAME are different

Good practice: Use meaningful names (e.g., student_name instead of x)

🧠 2. Python Keywords

Reserved words in Python that cannot be used as identifiers.

Example Keywords Example Keywords

if else

for while

def return

import from

class try, except

Use help("keywords") in the Python shell to see the full list.

🧮 3. Variables in Python
✅ Definition:

A variable is a container for storing data values.

name = "Ali"
age = 20

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Python uses dynamic typing, so you don't need to declare data types explicitly.

🔄 Variable Assignment:

• =is the assignment operator

• Multiple assignments:
• x = y = z = 10 # Same value to multiple variables
• a, b = 5, "Hello" # Multiple values to multiple variables

📊 4. Data Types in Python

Data Type Example Description

int 5, -12 Integer values

float 3.14, -2.5 Decimal numbers

str "Python" Text (string)

bool True, False Boolean values

list [1, 2, 3] Ordered, mutable sequence

tuple (1, 2, 3) Ordered, immutable sequence

dict {"a": 1} Key-value pairs

set {1, 2, 3} Unordered, unique elements

Use the type() function to check the data type of a variable.

a = 10
print(type(a)) # <class 'int'>

⌨️ 5. Input and Output Functions

🖥️ Output: print()

Displays data to the screen.

print("Welcome to Python!")
name = "Ali"
print("Hello", name)
⌨️ Input: input()

Takes input from the user as a string by default.

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name = input("Enter your name: ")

age = input("Enter your age: ")
print("Hi", name, "you are", age, "years old.")

Convert input to number using int() or float() if needed.

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))

💬 6. Comments and Documentation Strings

📌 Comments:

• Used to describe and explain code

• Ignored during execution

# This is a single-line comment

📌 Docstrings:

• Multi-line documentation used for functions, classes, or modules

• Placed just after definition
• Use triple quotes """ """

def greet():
"""
This function prints a greeting message.
"""
print("Hello from Python!")

Use help(function_name) to see the docstring.

🧪 7. Practice Examples
# Program to take name and age and display a message
name = input("Enter your name: ")
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
print("Welcome", name, "you are", age, "years old.")
# Using multiple assignments
x, y, z = 10, 20, 30
print(x, y, z)

📌 Summary

• Identifiers name variables, functions, etc., and must follow naming rules.
• Variables store values and Python handles their data types dynamically.
• Use input() and print() for basic interaction.
• Comments and docstrings improve code readability and documentation.

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📘 Homework / Self-Practice

4. Write a Python script to:

o Take your name and birth year.
o Calculate and display your age.
5. Identify invalid variable names:
o 2nd_name, first-name, _value, class
6. Write a docstring for a function that adds two numbers.

CS306 – Lecture 3: Operators and Expressions in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the different types of operators in Python.

• Learn about operator precedence and associativity.
• Use expressions in practical programming tasks.
• Explore type conversion techniques.

⚙️ 1. What is an Operator?

An operator is a symbol or function that performs operations on variables and values

(operands).

🔢 2. Types of Operators in Python

Operator Type Description

Arithmetic Operators Basic math operations

Assignment Operators Assign values to variables

Comparison Operators Compare values

Logical Operators Combine conditional statements

Bitwise Operators Work with bits

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Operator Type Description

Membership Operators Test membership in a sequence

Identity Operators Compare memory locations

➕ 3. Arithmetic Operators
Operator Description Example Result

+ Addition 5 + 3 8

- Subtraction 5 - 2 3

* Multiplication 4 * 2 8

/ Division 10 / 2 5.0

// Floor Division 7 // 2 3

% Modulus 7 % 2 1

** Exponentiation 2 ** 3 8

📝 4. Assignment Operators
Operator Example Equivalent

= x = 5 x=5

+= x += 3 x = x + 3

-= x -= 2 x = x - 2

*= x *= 4 x = x * 4

/= x /= 2 x = x / 2

%= x %= 3 x = x % 3

**= x **= 2 x = x ** 2

//= x //= 2 x = x // 2

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🤔 5. Comparison (Relational) Operators

Operator Description Example Result

== Equal to 5 == 5 True

!= Not equal to 4 != 3 True

> Greater than 5 > 3 True

< Less than 3 < 4 True

>= Greater than or equal 5 >= 5 True

<= Less than or equal 4 <= 5 True

🧠 6. Logical Operators

Used to combine conditional statements.

Operator Description Example Result

and True if both conditions are True x > 2 and x < 10 True

or True if at least one is True x < 2 or x > 10 False

not Reverses the result not(x > 5) False

🧩 7. Bitwise Operators (Basic Introduction)

Operate on binary digits of numbers.

Operator Symbol Example Meaning

AND & 5 & 3 Binary AND

OR ` ` `5

XOR ^ 5 ^ 3 Binary XOR

NOT ~ ~5 Binary NOT

Left Shift << 5 << 1 Shift left by 1 bit

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Operator Symbol Example Meaning

Right Shift >> 5 >> 1 Shift right by 1 bit

🔎 8. Membership Operators

Used to test for membership in a sequence (like string, list, tuple).

Operator Description Example

in True if value is present 'a' in 'apple' → True

not in True if value is not present 'z' not in 'apple' → True

🆔 9. Identity Operators

Used to compare memory locations.

Operator Description Example

is True if two variables point to the same object x is y

is not True if not same object x is not y

🔗 10. Operator Precedence and Associativity

Operator precedence determines the order in which operations are performed.

Example:

result = 10 + 5 * 2 # result = 10 + (5 * 2) = 20

Precedence Order (High to Low):

4. () Parentheses
5. ** Exponentiation
6. *, /, //, % Multiplication/Division
7. +, - Addition/Subtraction
8. ==, !=, >, <, >=, <= Comparisons
9. not
10. and

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11. or

Associativity:

• Most operators are left-to-right

• Exponentiation ** is right-to-left

🔄 11. Type Conversion (Type Casting)

Implicit Conversion

Python automatically converts data types.

x = 5 # int
y = 2.5 # float
z = x + y # float (7.5)
Explicit Conversion

Manually convert types using functions like:

• int()
• float()
• str()

num = int("10") # Converts string to integer

text = str(123) # Converts number to string

🧪 12. Practice Examples

# Arithmetic example
a = 10
b = 3
print(a + b, a % b, a // b)

# Logical example
x = 5
print(x > 3 and x < 10)

# Type conversion
age = input("Enter your age: ")
print("Your age + 5 is:", int(age) + 5)

🧾 Summary

• Python supports many operator types like arithmetic, assignment, comparison, logical,
etc.
• Operator precedence affects how expressions are evaluated.

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• Python allows both implicit and explicit type conversion.

📝 Homework / Self-Practice

4. Write a program that takes two numbers and prints:

o Their sum, product, quotient, and remainder.
5. Create a program that:
o Checks if a number is between 10 and 20.
6. Try out different assignment operators and see how values change.

CS306 – Lecture 4: Conditional Statements in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand decision-making in Python using conditional statements.

• Learn how to use if, if-else, and if-elif-else.
• Handle nested conditional logic.
• Understand indentation rules for blocks.

🧠 1. Introduction to Control Flow

In Python, control flow lets you execute certain parts of the code based on conditions. This is
mainly done using:

• if statements
• if-else statements
• if-elif-else chains

🧪 2. The if Statement

The if statement is used to test a condition. If the condition is true, a block of code is executed.

Syntax
if condition:
# block of code

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Example
x = 10
if x > 5:
print("x is greater than 5")

🔄 3. The if-else Statement

Used to execute one block if the condition is true, and another if it is false.

Syntax
if condition:
# true block
else:
# false block
Example
age = 17
if age >= 18:
print("You can vote")
else:
print("You are not eligible to vote")

🔗 4. The if-elif-else Ladder

Used for multiple conditions.

Syntax
if condition1:
# block 1
elif condition2:
# block 2
elif condition3:
# block 3
else:
# final block
Example
marks = 85

if marks >= 90:

print("Grade: A+")
elif marks >= 80:
print("Grade: A")
elif marks >= 70:
print("Grade: B")
else:
print("Grade: C or below")

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📥 5. Nested if Statements

You can place one if statement inside another.

Example
num = 15
if num > 10:
if num < 20:
print("Number is between 10 and 20")

🚧 6. Indentation in Python

Python uses indentation (whitespace) to define code blocks.

• The default is 4 spaces.

• All code in the same block must be aligned.

Incorrect Example
if x > 5:
print("Wrong indentation") #
Correct Example
if x > 5:
print("Correct indentation") #

📝 7. Practical Examples
Example 1: Even or Odd Checker
number = int(input("Enter a number: "))
if number % 2 == 0:
print("Even number")
else:
print("Odd number")
Example 2: Voting Eligibility
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
if age >= 18:
print("Eligible to vote")
else:
print("Not eligible")
Example 3: Largest of Three Numbers
a = 10
b = 20
c = 15

if a >= b and a >= c:

print("a is largest")
elif b >= a and b >= c:
print("b is largest")
else:

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print("c is largest")

❗ 8. Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Forgetting colons : after if, elif, else

• Misaligned indentation
• Using = instead of == in conditions

🔄 9. Real-World Use Case

Login Validation
username = input("Enter username: ")
password = input("Enter password: ")

if username == "admin" and password == "12345":

print("Login successful")
else:
print("Invalid credentials")

🧾 Summary

• if, if-else, and if-elif-else are used for decision-making.

• Python relies on indentation, not braces {} like C/C++.
• Nested conditions help manage more complex logic.

📝 Homework / Self-Practice

1. Write a program that checks whether a number is positive, negative, or zero.

2. Create a program that takes the percentage and assigns grades using if-elif-else.
3. Develop a nested condition that checks:
o If the user is adult (age ≥ 18),
o If they are also a citizen, print “Eligible to vote”.

CS306 – Lecture 5: Loops in Python (Part 1)

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🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the need for loops.

• Learn the syntax and use of the while loop.
• Learn how to use the for loop.
• Understand the use of break, continue, and pass statements.
• Explore iteration through strings, lists, and ranges.

🔁 1. What is a Loop?

A loop is a control structure that allows you to repeat a block of code multiple times until a
condition is met.

Python supports two main types of loops:

• while loop
• for loop

🔄 2. The while Loop

Executes a block of code as long as the condition is True.

Syntax
while condition:
# block of code
Example
i = 1
while i <= 5:
print(i)
i += 1
Output
1
2
3
4
5

Be careful: If the condition never becomes False, you will have an infinite
loop.

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🔁 3. The for Loop

Used to iterate over a sequence (like a list, tuple, string, or range).

Syntax
for variable in sequence:
# block of code
Example
for i in range(1, 6):
print(i)
Output
1
2
3
4
5

📦 4. The range() Function

Often used with for loops to generate sequences of numbers.

Syntax
range(start, stop, step)
Examples
range(5) # 0 to 4
range(1, 6) # 1 to 5
range(0, 10, 2) # 0, 2, 4, 6, 8

📤 5. Iterating Through Data Structures

Iterate over a string
for letter in "Python":
print(letter)
Iterate over a list
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for fruit in fruits:
print(fruit)

⛔ 6. Loop Control Statements

🔸 break

Used to exit a loop prematurely.

for i in range(10):
if i == 5:
break

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print(i)
🔸 continue

Skips the current iteration and continues with the next one.

for i in range(5):
if i == 2:
continue
print(i)
🔸 pass

Does nothing; used as a placeholder.

for i in range(3):
pass # placeholder for future code

📊 7. Practical Examples
Example 1: Sum of first 10 numbers
total = 0
for i in range(1, 11):
total += i
print("Sum:", total)
Example 2: Print even numbers between 1 to 20
for i in range(1, 21):
if i % 2 == 0:
print(i)
Example 3: Infinite while loop (with break)
while True:
name = input("Enter your name (type 'exit' to stop): ")
if name == "exit":
break
print("Hello", name)

⚠️ 8. Common Mistakes

• Forgetting to update the loop variable in a while loop.

• Not using : after the loop condition.
• Improper indentation.

🧾 Summary

• while loops are condition-based, for loops are sequence-based.

• break exits the loop, continue skips one iteration, pass does nothing.
• range() is useful for creating number sequences.

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• Python allows iterating through strings, lists, and more.

📝 Homework / Self-Practice

1. Write a while loop to print numbers from 10 to 1.

2. Create a for loop to print the multiplication table of any number entered by the user.
3. Write a program to count how many vowels are in a given string.
4. Print all odd numbers between 1 to 50 using a for loop.

CS306 – Lecture 6: Loops in Python (Part 2) – Nested Loops and Patterns

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand nested loops in Python.

• Learn how to construct pattern-based outputs using loops.
• Practice logical thinking through loop exercises.
• Reinforce the difference between for and while loops.

🔁 1. Nested Loops

A nested loop is a loop inside another loop. Useful for:

• Printing patterns
• Working with 2D structures like matrices

Syntax
for i in range(n): # Outer loop
for j in range(m): # Inner loop
# Block of code

✅ 2. Simple Nested Loop Example

Example: Print a 3x3 grid of stars
for i in range(3):
for j in range(3):
print("*", end=" ")
print()

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Output:
* * *
* * *
* * *

• end=" " keeps printing on the same line.

• print() after inner loop moves to the next line.

🧩 3. Number Patterns
Example 1: Increasing Number Triangle
for i in range(1, 6):
for j in range(1, i + 1):
print(j, end=" ")
print()
Output:
1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5

Example 2: Star Triangle

for i in range(1, 6):
print("*" * i)
Output:
*
**
***
****
*****

🧠 4. Logical Thinking with Loops

Nested loops are useful for problems involving rows and columns, such as:

• Grids
• Tables
• Matrix operations
• Game boards

🔄 5. Using Nested while Loops

Example: Print 3x3 number grid
i = 1

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while i <= 3:
j = 1
while j <= 3:
print(j, end=" ")
j += 1
print()
i += 1

🧮 6. Multiplication Table (Using Nested Loops)

for i in range(1, 11):
for j in range(1, 11):
print(i * j, end="\t")
print()
Output: A 10x10 multiplication table

🔄 7. Pattern Practice Examples

Example: Inverted Star Triangle
for i in range(5, 0, -1):
print("*" * i)
Output:
*****
****
***
**
*

Example: Right-aligned Star Triangle

for i in range(1, 6):
print(" " * (5 - i) + "*" * i)
Output:
*
**
***
****
*****

📌 8. Tips for Pattern Printing

• Use outer loop to control number of lines.

• Use inner loop to control characters in each line.
• Combine "*" or numbers with spaces to format correctly.
• Use end=" " or end="" to control line breaks.

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⚠️ 9. Common Mistakes

• Confusing inner and outer loop variables.

• Misusing end=" " and print().
• Forgetting to increment counters in while loops.
• Improper indentation in nested loops.

🧾 Summary

• Nested loops allow repeated actions within repeated actions.

• Pattern printing improves logical flow and nested loop mastery.
• Loops can be used for both simple and advanced outputs.

📝 Homework / Self-Practice

1. Write a program to print the following pattern:

2. 1
3. 2 2
4. 3 3 3
5. 4 4 4 4
6. Print a hollow square using nested loops.
7. Create a multiplication table from 1 to 20 using nested loops.
8. Use nested while loops to print the pattern:
9. * * * *
10. * *
11. * *
12. * * * *

CS306 – Lecture 7: Functions in Python (Part 1)

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the concept of functions in Python.

• Learn how to define and call functions.
• Understand the use of parameters and arguments.
• Explore return values.
• Learn the benefits of using functions.

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🔧 1. What is a Function?

A function is a block of organized, reusable code that performs a specific task.

Functions help to:

• Avoid repetition (code reusability)

• Break a large program into smaller manageable parts
• Improve clarity and debugging

🛠️ 2. Defining a Function
Syntax
def function_name(parameters):
# block of code
Example
def greet():
print("Hello, Python!")

This defines the function, but does not call it yet.

📞 3. Calling a Function

You call a function to execute the code inside it.

greet() # Output: Hello, Python!

🧾 4. Function with Parameters

Parameters are values passed into a function.

def greet(name):
print("Hello,", name)

greet("Ali")
Output:
Hello, Ali

• "name" is a parameter in the function definition.

• "Ali" is an argument passed during the function call.

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🔁 5. Function with Multiple Parameters

def add(a, b):
print("Sum is", a + b)

add(5, 3)
Output:
Sum is 8

🔙 6. The return Statement

Functions can return a value using the return statement.

def square(x):
return x * x

result = square(4)
print(result)
Output:
16

• return sends a result back to the caller.

• The result can be stored in a variable.

✅ 7. Function vs Procedure
Term Returns Value? Use Case

Function Yes When a result is expected

Procedure No Just performs an action

Note: In Python, all functions are called "functions" — there's no separate keyword for
"procedures".

🧠 8. Why Use Functions?

• Modularity: Breaks program into smaller parts.

• Reusability: Write once, use many times.
• Readability: Clean and understandable code.
• Debugging: Easy to test small pieces.

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🧪 9. Practical Examples
Example 1: Find maximum of two numbers
def maximum(a, b):
if a > b:
return a
else:
return b

print(maximum(10, 20)) # Output: 20

Example 2: Calculate factorial
def factorial(n):
result = 1
for i in range(1, n+1):
result *= i
return result

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

📌 10. Function Naming Rules

• Must begin with a letter or underscore

• Cannot start with a number
• Can include letters, numbers, underscores
• Avoid using Python keywords

⚠️ 11. Common Mistakes

• Forgetting parentheses when calling functions: greet vs greet()

• Mismatched number of arguments
• Not using return when a value is expected
• Mixing up parameters and arguments

🧾 Summary

• A function is defined with def and called using its name with parentheses.
• You can pass parameters and return values.
• Functions help write cleaner, reusable, and organized code.

📝 Homework / Practice Tasks

1. Define a function that takes a number and prints whether it is even or odd.

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2. Write a function to calculate the area of a circle (πr²).

3. Create a function to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit.
4. Make a function that takes a name and age and prints a greeting message.

CS306 – Lecture 8: Functions in Python (Part 2)

Default Arguments, Keyword Arguments, Variable-Length Arguments

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand default arguments in functions.

• Learn how to use keyword arguments.
• Explore variable-length arguments (*args and **kwargs).
• Reinforce flexibility in function definitions.

🧰 1. Default Arguments

Default arguments allow us to assign a default value to a parameter in case no value is provided
during the function call.

Syntax:
def function_name(parameter=default_value):
# code block
Example:
def greet(name="Guest"):
print("Hello,", name)

greet() # Output: Hello, Guest

greet("Ayesha") # Output: Hello, Ayesha

Default arguments make parameters optional.

🧾 2. Rules for Default Arguments

• Default arguments must come after non-default ones.

Valid:

def func(a, b=10): ...

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Invalid:

def func(a=10, b): ... # SyntaxError

🔑 3. Keyword Arguments

Keyword arguments are used when calling a function by specifying parameter names.

Example:
def student(name, age):
print("Name:", name)
print("Age:", age)

student(age=20, name="Ahmed")
Output:
Name: Ahmed
Age: 20

Order does not matter when using keyword arguments.

✳️ 4. Variable-Length Arguments

Sometimes we don’t know how many arguments will be passed. Python allows:

• *args → multiple positional arguments

• **kwargs → multiple keyword arguments

🔹 *args: Multiple Positional Arguments

Example:
def total(*numbers):
sum = 0
for num in numbers:
sum += num
print("Total:", sum)

total(5, 10, 15) # Output: Total: 30

*args collects extra positional arguments as a tuple.

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🔹 **kwargs: Multiple Keyword Arguments

Example:
def show_details(**info):
for key, value in info.items():
print(key, ":", value)

show_details(name="Sara", age=22, city="Lahore")

Output:
name : Sara
age : 22
city : Lahore

**kwargs collects extra keyword arguments as a dictionary.

🔄 5. Combining All Types

Example:
def example(a, b=10, *args, **kwargs):
print("a =", a)
print("b =", b)
print("args =", args)
print("kwargs =", kwargs)

example(1, 2, 3, 4, name="Ali", age=25)

Output:
a = 1
b = 2
args = (3, 4)
kwargs = {'name': 'Ali', 'age': 25}

🧠 6. Benefits of Using These Features

• Create more flexible functions.

• Handle optional and unknown inputs.
• Build reusable utility functions.

⚠️ 7. Common Mistakes

• Misplacing the order of arguments.

• Using *args or **kwargs incorrectly (e.g., forgetting the * or **).
• Assigning default arguments before required ones.

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✅ 8. Recap Table
Type Usage Example Collected As

Positional func(1, 2) As values

Keyword func(x=1, y=2) As keys

Default def func(x=10) Optional

*args def func(*args) Tuple

**kwargs def func(**kwargs) Dictionary

📝 Homework / Practice

1. Write a function that accepts variable numbers of arguments and returns their average.
2. Define a function with default arguments for name and city.
3. Use **kwargs to accept any student information and print it line by line.
4. Combine *args and **kwargs in a single function and print the data.

CS306 – Lecture 9: Recursion in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the concept of recursion in programming.

• Learn how to write recursive functions in Python.
• Study base case and recursive case.
• Understand the importance of recursion and its application in solving problems.

🔄 1. What is Recursion?

Recursion is a technique where a function calls itself in order to solve a problem. The problem is
divided into smaller subproblems, and the function calls itself to solve them.

Key Components of a Recursive Function:

1. Base case: The condition that stops the recursion.

2. Recursive case: The part where the function calls itself.

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🧠 2. Basic Structure of Recursion

General Syntax:
def recursive_function(parameters):
if base_case_condition:
return result # This is the base case.
else:
return recursive_function(smaller_problem) # Recursive call

🧾 3. Example: Factorial Function (Using Recursion)

The factorial of a number n is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n:

n!=n×(n−1)×(n−2)×⋯×1n! = n \times (n-1) \times (n-2) \times \dots \times 1

Recursive Factorial Function:

def factorial(n):
if n == 1:
return 1 # Base case
else:
return n * factorial(n-1) # Recursive call

print(factorial(5)) # Output: 120

Explanation:

• Base case: If n == 1, return 1.

• Recursive case: Multiply n by factorial(n-1).

🔢 4. Example: Fibonacci Sequence (Using Recursion)

The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers where each number is the sum of the two
preceding ones. The sequence starts with 0 and 1:

F(0)=0,F(1)=1,F(n)=F(n−1)+F(n−2)F(0) = 0, F(1) = 1, F(n) = F(n-1) + F(n-2)

Recursive Fibonacci Function:

def fibonacci(n):
if n <= 1:
return n # Base case
else:
return fibonacci(n-1) + fibonacci(n-2) # Recursive call

print(fibonacci(6)) # Output: 8

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Explanation:

• Base case: If n <= 1, return n.

• Recursive case: Return the sum of fibonacci(n-1) and fibonacci(n-2).

⚠️ 5. Importance of Base Case

Without a base case, the recursion will continue infinitely, resulting in a stack overflow error.
Always ensure that:

• A base case is defined.

• The recursive calls move closer to the base case.

🧑‍🏫 6. Tracing Recursion

When tracing recursive calls, it's important to observe the following:

1. How the function call stack grows.

2. The base case condition.
3. How the function unwinds (returns back) after reaching the base case.

Example: Tracing factorial(3)

factorial(3) # Calls factorial(2)
factorial(2) # Calls factorial(1)
factorial(1) # Returns 1

📉 7. Recursive Function Efficiency

Recursion is elegant and easy to understand but can lead to inefficiency for large inputs.
Memoization and iterative solutions are often preferred for optimizing recursive functions.

• Memoization: Store the results of subproblems to avoid redundant calculations.

• Iterative Solutions: Replace recursion with loops for efficiency.

🧠 8. Recursive vs Iterative Solutions

Example: Factorial (Iterative vs Recursive)

• Iterative solution:

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def factorial_iterative(n):
result = 1
for i in range(1, n + 1):
result *= i
return result

• Recursive solution:

def factorial_recursive(n):
if n == 1:
return 1
else:
return n * factorial_recursive(n-1)

🧪 9. Applications of Recursion

1. Sorting Algorithms: QuickSort, MergeSort, and other divide-and-conquer algorithms.

2. Tree and Graph Traversal: In-order, pre-order, post-order traversal of trees.
3. Backtracking Algorithms: Solving puzzles like Sudoku, N-Queens problem.
4. Mathematical Problems: Factorial, Fibonacci, and other series.

🔄 10. Common Recursion Mistakes

• Forgetting the base case (leading to infinite recursion).

• Passing incorrect parameters that lead to incorrect results.
• Using recursion unnecessarily when an iterative solution would be more efficient.

📌 11. Recursion Example: Sum of Natural Numbers

To calculate the sum of the first n natural numbers:

Sum(n)=n+Sum(n−1)\text{Sum}(n) = n + \text{Sum}(n-1)

Recursive Function:
def sum_of_numbers(n):
if n == 1:
return 1
else:
return n + sum_of_numbers(n-1)

print(sum_of_numbers(5)) # Output: 15

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📝 Summary

• Recursion is a powerful programming technique where a function calls itself.

• It consists of a base case and a recursive case.
• Use recursion when the problem can be broken down into smaller subproblems.
• Always ensure the recursion reaches a base case to avoid infinite loops.

📝 Homework / Practice

1. Write a recursive function to find the power of a number (x^n).

2. Implement a recursive solution for finding the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two
numbers.
3. Create a recursive function to reverse a string.
4. Solve the Tower of Hanoi problem using recursion.

CS306 – Lecture 10: File Handling in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the concept of file handling in Python.

• Learn how to open, read, and write files in Python.
• Explore different file modes for file handling.
• Handle file exceptions and ensure proper file closure.

📁 1. Introduction to File Handling

File handling in Python allows you to interact with files—read from them, write to them, and
manipulate file contents. Files are categorized as either text files or binary files.

🧰 2. Opening Files in Python

Before performing any operations on a file (like reading or writing), you need to open the file
using the open() function.

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Syntax:
file_object = open("filename", "mode")
File Modes:

• "r": Read (default mode). Opens the file for reading only.
• "w": Write. Opens the file for writing (overwrites the file if it exists).
• "a": Append. Opens the file for appending data.
• "b": Binary mode (used for non-text files like images).
• "x": Exclusive creation. Creates a new file but raises an error if the file already exists.

Example:
file = open("example.txt", "r") # Opens file in read mode

📝 3. Reading from Files

Python provides several methods to read data from a file:

read():

Reads the entire content of the file.

file = open("example.txt", "r")

content = file.read() # Reads the entire file
print(content)
file.close() # Always close the file after operations
readline():

Reads one line at a time.

file = open("example.txt", "r")

line = file.readline() # Reads one line
print(line)
file.close()
readlines():

Reads all the lines into a list.

file = open("example.txt", "r")

lines = file.readlines() # Returns a list of all lines
print(lines)
file.close()

✍️ 4. Writing to Files

To write to a file, open it in write ("w") or append ("a") mode.

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write():

Writes the string to the file (overwrites the file if it exists).

file = open("example.txt", "w")

file.write("Hello, World!\nThis is a test.")
file.close()
writelines():

Writes a list of strings to a file.

file = open("example.txt", "w")

lines = ["First line\n", "Second line\n"]
file.writelines(lines)
file.close()

🔒 5. Closing Files

It's crucial to always close a file after performing operations to free up system resources.

Syntax:
file.close()

⚠️ 6. File Exceptions

When handling files, it’s important to consider errors such as:

• The file not existing.

• Permission errors.
• File handling exceptions.

Python provides exception handling to deal with such issues using try, except, and finally.

Example:
try:
file = open("example.txt", "r")
content = file.read()
print(content)
except FileNotFoundError:
print("The file does not exist!")
finally:
file.close()

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🔄 7. Working with File Paths

When opening a file, you can specify a relative path (from the current directory) or an absolute
path (full path from the root).

Example:
file = open("/home/user/example.txt", "r") # Absolute path

🔑 8. File Operations Summary

Mode Description Example

"r" Read (default) open("file.txt", "r")

"w" Write (overwrites) open("file.txt", "w")

"a" Append (adds to the end) open("file.txt", "a")

"b" Binary (used for non-text files) open("file.jpg", "rb")

"x" Create a new file (raises error if the file exists) open("file.txt", "x")

⚙️ 9. Context Manager (with Statement)

Using with statement helps ensure that the file is properly closed after the operations, even if an
error occurs.

Example:
with open("example.txt", "r") as file:
content = file.read()
print(content)
# No need to call file.close(), it’s automatically handled

🧠 10. Working with Binary Files

Binary files (e.g., images, audio files) require reading and writing in binary mode ("b").

Example: Reading a Binary File

with open("image.jpg", "rb") as file:
content = file.read()
print(content)
Example: Writing to a Binary File
with open("output.jpg", "wb") as file:
file.write(content)

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📝 Summary

• Use open() to work with files in Python.

• Files can be opened in different modes ("r", "w", "a", etc.).
• Always close files after operations, or use the with statement to ensure automatic
closure.
• Handle file exceptions using try and except blocks.

📝 Homework / Practice

1. Write a program to count the number of words in a text file.

2. Write a function to append new data to an existing file.
3. Create a program that reads a file and prints each line in reverse order.
4. Write a program that reads a binary file (e.g., an image) and saves it to another location.

CS306 – Lecture 11: Python Libraries

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand what libraries are in Python.

• Learn how to import and use external libraries in Python.
• Explore some commonly used standard libraries in Python.
• Learn about third-party libraries and how to install them using pip.

📚 1. Introduction to Python Libraries

In Python, a library is a collection of pre-written code that provides functionality for various
tasks like file I/O, math operations, system operations, and web development. Libraries help
avoid writing repetitive code and make programming faster and more efficient.

Two types of libraries:

1. Standard Libraries: These are built-in libraries that come with Python.
2. Third-Party Libraries: Libraries developed by the community that can be installed via
package managers like pip.

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🧰 2. Importing Libraries

To use a library or module in Python, we need to import it.

Basic Syntax for Importing:

import library_name # Import the entire library
Example:
import math # Import the math library
print(math.sqrt(16)) # Output: 4.0

You can also import specific functions from a module:

from math import sqrt # Import only sqrt from the math library
print(sqrt(16)) # Output: 4.0

Or, you can import the library with an alias:

import math as m # Alias for math library

print(m.sqrt(16)) # Output: 4.0

🔧 3. Standard Libraries in Python

Python provides a wide range of standard libraries for various tasks. Some common ones
include:

1. math:

Provides mathematical functions like sqrt(), pow(), sin(), etc.

Example:

import math
print(math.pi) # Output: 3.141592653589793
2. random:

Used for generating random numbers, choosing random elements from a list, etc.

Example:

import random
print(random.randint(1, 10)) # Generates a random integer between 1 and 10
3. time:

Used for working with time-related tasks, such as delays or formatting timestamps.

Example:

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import time
print(time.time()) # Returns the current time in seconds since the epoch
4. os:

Provides functions to interact with the operating system, such as file manipulation and process
management.

Example:

import os
print(os.getcwd()) # Returns the current working directory
5. sys:

Provides access to system-specific parameters and functions. Used for interacting with
command-line arguments.

Example:

import sys
print(sys.version) # Prints the version of Python
6. json:

Used for working with JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) data.

Example:

import json
data = '{"name": "John", "age": 30}'
parsed_data = json.loads(data) # Converts string to Python dictionary
print(parsed_data)

📦 4. Third-Party Libraries

In addition to the standard libraries, Python also supports a vast collection of third-party
libraries developed by the community. These libraries can be installed using Python’s package
manager pip.

Installing Third-Party Libraries with pip:

1. Installing a Library:
o Run the following command in the terminal:
2. pip install library_name
3. Example: Installing the requests library (for making HTTP requests).
4. pip install requests
5. Using an Installed Library:
After installation, you can import and use the library in your Python code:
6. import requests

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7. response = requests.get("https://api.github.com")
8. print(response.status_code)
Popular Third-Party Libraries:

• NumPy: For numerical computations.

• Pandas: For data manipulation and analysis.
• Matplotlib: For data visualization.
• Django: A web framework for building web applications.
• Flask: A lightweight web framework.
• BeautifulSoup: For web scraping and parsing HTML/XML.
• TensorFlow: For machine learning and neural networks.

🔍 5. Exploring and Managing Libraries

Checking Installed Libraries:

You can check the list of installed libraries using:

pip list
Uninstalling a Library:

To uninstall a library, use:

pip uninstall library_name

🔄 6. Virtual Environments

In Python, virtual environments allow you to create isolated environments for your projects. This
helps manage dependencies and avoid conflicts between libraries in different projects.

Creating a Virtual Environment:

1. Install the virtualenv package:

2. pip install virtualenv
3. Create a new virtual environment:
4. virtualenv myenv
5. Activate the virtual environment:
o On Windows:
o myenv\Scripts\activate
o On macOS/Linux:
o source myenv/bin/activate
6. To deactivate the virtual environment:
7. deactivate

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📘 7. Using Documentation

Most libraries come with documentation that explains how to use their functions. You can access
the official Python documentation here: Python Standard Library.

To get information about a module or function in Python, use the help() function.

Example:

help(math)
help(math.sqrt)

🧠 8. Summary

• Python libraries allow you to extend Python’s functionality without writing everything
from scratch.
• Use import to bring in libraries into your code.
• Python’s standard library includes modules for handling file I/O, system tasks,
mathematics, and more.
• Third-party libraries can be installed via pip, and popular libraries include requests,
numpy, and pandas.
• Use virtual environments to manage project dependencies effectively.

📝 Homework / Practice

1. Install and use the requests library to fetch data from an API.
2. Write a Python program that uses the os library to list all files in a directory.
3. Use the random library to simulate rolling a dice.
4. Create a Python program that reads a JSON file using the json library and extracts
specific data.

CS306 – Lecture 12: Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the concept of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP).

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• Learn about the four main principles of OOP: Encapsulation, Abstraction, Inheritance,
and Polymorphism.
• Understand how to implement these principles in Python using classes and objects.
• Learn about methods and attributes in Python.

🧑‍💻 1. Introduction to Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that organizes software design

around objects and classes. OOP makes it easier to create modular, reusable, and maintainable
code.

Key Concepts of OOP:

• Classes: Blueprints for creating objects.

• Objects: Instances of a class.
• Attributes: Variables that belong to a class or object.
• Methods: Functions that belong to a class or object.

🏗️ 2. Defining Classes and Objects

Classes

A class is a blueprint for creating objects. It defines the attributes and methods common to all
objects of that class.

Syntax to Define a Class:

class ClassName:
# constructor (__init__ method)
def __init__(self, attribute1, attribute2):
self.attribute1 = attribute1
self.attribute2 = attribute2

# method
def method_name(self):
pass
Example:
class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

def greet(self):
print(f"Hello, my name is {self.name} and I am {self.age} years
old.")

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Objects

An object is an instance of a class. When you create an object, Python calls the class constructor
(__init__ method) to initialize the object's attributes.

Creating an Object:
person1 = Person("Alice", 30)
person2 = Person("Bob", 25)

Now, you can access the attributes and methods of the objects:

print(person1.name) # Output: Alice

person2.greet() # Output: Hello, my name is Bob and I am 25 years old.

🛠️ 3. Four Principles of OOP

1. Encapsulation

Encapsulation is the concept of bundling data (attributes) and methods that operate on the data
into a single unit (class). It also involves controlling access to the data by restricting the use of
the data outside the class.

Example:
class Car:
def __init__(self, make, model, year):
self.make = make
self.model = model
self.year = year
self.__speed = 0 # Private attribute

def accelerate(self):
self.__speed += 5

def get_speed(self):
return self.__speed

def set_speed(self, speed):

if speed >= 0:
self.__speed = speed
else:
print("Speed cannot be negative.")

Here, __speed is a private attribute, and we use methods to interact with it (get_speed() and
set_speed()).

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2. Abstraction

Abstraction is the concept of hiding the complexity of the system and exposing only the
essential features to the user. This is done by defining abstract classes or using abstract
methods that only provide a blueprint for other classes.

In Python, abstraction is achieved through abstract classes using the abc module.

Example:
from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

class Animal(ABC):
@abstractmethod
def sound(self):
pass

class Dog(Animal):
def sound(self):
print("Woof!")

In this example, Animal is an abstract class with an abstract method sound(), which is
implemented by the Dog class.

3. Inheritance

Inheritance allows a class to inherit attributes and methods from another class. This promotes
reusability and allows the creation of hierarchical relationships between classes.

Example:
class Animal:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

def speak(self):
print(f"{self.name} makes a sound.")

class Dog(Animal):
def speak(self):
print(f"{self.name} barks.")

Now, the Dog class inherits the Animal class and overrides the speak() method:

dog = Dog("Buddy")
dog.speak() # Output: Buddy barks.
4. Polymorphism

Polymorphism allows different classes to provide a shared interface, but the implementation
can vary. It enables you to use a single method to represent different behaviors based on the
object type.

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Example:
class Cat(Animal):
def speak(self):
print(f"{self.name} meows.")

def make_sound(animal):
animal.speak()

dog = Dog("Rex")
cat = Cat("Whiskers")

make_sound(dog) # Output: Rex barks.

make_sound(cat) # Output: Whiskers meows.

In this example, make_sound() uses polymorphism to call the speak() method, which behaves
differently depending on whether the object is a Dog or Cat.

🧑‍🏫 4. Methods in Python Classes

Instance Methods

Instance methods are functions that operate on the attributes of an object. They are defined
within a class and take the self parameter.

class Circle:
def __init__(self, radius):
self.radius = radius

def area(self):
return 3.14 * self.radius ** 2

circle1 = Circle(5)
print(circle1.area()) # Output: 78.5
Class Methods

Class methods operate on the class itself rather than instances of the class. They are defined
using the @classmethod decorator and take the cls parameter.

class Person:
count = 0

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name
Person.count += 1

@classmethod
def get_count(cls):
return cls.count

p1 = Person("Alice")
p2 = Person("Bob")

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print(Person.get_count()) # Output: 2
Static Methods

Static methods do not operate on the instance or the class. They are defined using the
@staticmethod decorator and don't take self or cls parameters.

class MathOperations:
@staticmethod
def add(a, b):
return a + b

print(MathOperations.add(3, 5)) # Output: 8

🧠 5. Summary

• Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) organizes code around classes and objects.

• The four main principles of OOP are:
o Encapsulation: Bundling data and methods together and restricting access to
certain data.
o Abstraction: Hiding implementation details and exposing only essential features.
o Inheritance: Reusing attributes and methods from another class.
o Polymorphism: Using a shared interface with different implementations.
• Methods in Python classes can be instance methods, class methods, or static methods,
each serving different purposes.

📝 Homework / Practice

1. Create a class BankAccount with attributes account_number and balance. Implement

methods to deposit, withdraw, and check balance.
2. Create a Shape class with an abstract method area(). Implement classes for Rectangle
and Circle that inherit from Shape and override the area() method.
3. Write a program to implement polymorphism using a base class Vehicle and derived
classes Car and Bike.

CS306 – Lecture 13: File Handling in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the concept of file handling in Python.

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• Learn how to open, read, write, and close files in Python.

• Explore various modes for file operations in Python.
• Learn about context managers for safe file handling.

📂 1. Introduction to File Handling

File handling in Python allows you to read from and write to files. This is essential for working
with data stored in files like text files, CSVs, and log files. Python provides several built-in
functions for handling files efficiently.

Common File Operations:

• Opening a file.
• Reading from a file.
• Writing to a file.
• Closing a file.

🖋️ 2. Opening a File

Before performing any operation on a file, you must open it using Python’s built-in open()
function. This function returns a file object, which provides methods and attributes to perform
file operations.

Syntax:
file_object = open("filename", "mode")
Parameters:

• "filename": The name of the file to be opened (can include the file path).
• "mode": The mode in which the file is opened (read, write, append, etc.).

Modes of File Operations:

• 'r': Read (default mode). Opens the file for reading.

• 'w': Write. Opens the file for writing. Creates a new file or truncates an existing file.
• 'a': Append. Opens the file for writing. Data is added at the end.
• 'b': Binary mode (used with other modes like 'rb' or 'wb' for binary files).
• 'x': Exclusive creation. Creates a new file and returns an error if the file exists.
• 't': Text mode (default mode).

Example:
file = open("example.txt", "r")

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📝 3. Reading from a File

Once a file is opened in read mode ('r'), you can use different methods to read its contents.

Methods to Read a File:

1. read(): Reads the entire file content.

2. file_content = file.read()
3. print(file_content)
4. readline(): Reads one line from the file at a time.
5. line = file.readline()
6. print(line)
7. readlines(): Reads all the lines in a file and returns a list of lines.
8. lines = file.readlines()
9. print(lines)
Example: Reading a File Line by Line
file = open("example.txt", "r")
for line in file:
print(line, end="") # end="" prevents extra newline
file.close()

✍️ 4. Writing to a File

To write to a file, you must open the file in write ('w'), append ('a'), or exclusive creation ('x')
mode. If the file doesn’t exist, Python will create it.

Writing Text to a File:

1. write(): Writes a string to the file.

2. file = open("example.txt", "w")
3. file.write("Hello, world!")
4. file.close()
5. writelines(): Writes a list of strings to the file.
6. lines = ["First line\n", "Second line\n", "Third line\n"]
7. file = open("example.txt", "w")
8. file.writelines(lines)
9. file.close()

🔐 5. Closing a File

It is important to close a file after performing operations to ensure data is saved and resources are
released.

Syntax:
file.close()

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Failure to close a file can lead to memory leaks or corrupted data.

🛠️ 6. Using Context Manager (with Statement)

Python provides a convenient way to handle file operations using a context manager. This
ensures that the file is properly closed after its operations are completed, even if an exception
occurs.

Syntax:
with open("filename", "mode") as file:
# File operations go here
content = file.read()

The context manager automatically handles the opening and closing of the file.

Example:
with open("example.txt", "r") as file:
content = file.read()
print(content)
# No need to manually close the file

🧰 7. File Handling Example

Let’s combine the concepts we’ve learned so far in a practical example. In this example, we will
read from one file, modify its contents, and then write the updated content to a new file.

Example:
# Reading from the file
with open("source.txt", "r") as file:
lines = file.readlines()

# Modifying the content

lines.append("This is a new line.\n")

# Writing to a new file

with open("destination.txt", "w") as file:
file.writelines(lines)

🧑‍💻 8. File Handling with Binary Files

In addition to handling text files, Python also supports binary file operations. Binary files store
data in a format that is not human-readable (e.g., images, videos).

To open a binary file, use the 'b' mode in conjunction with other modes like 'rb' or 'wb'.

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Example (Reading a Binary File):

with open("image.jpg", "rb") as file:
data = file.read()
print(data)
Example (Writing to a Binary File):
with open("new_image.jpg", "wb") as file:
file.write(data)

🧠 9. Summary

• File handling in Python involves opening, reading, writing, and closing files.
• You can open files in various modes, such as 'r', 'w', and 'a'.
• Use read(), readline(), and readlines() to read from a file.
• Use write() and writelines() to write to a file.
• Always close a file after operations or use the with statement for automatic file
management.
• Binary file handling is done using 'rb' and 'wb' modes for reading and writing binary
data.

📝 Homework / Practice

1. Write a Python program that reads a file, counts the number of words, and then writes the
word count to a new file.
2. Create a Python program that reads a CSV file and displays its content.
3. Write a program that reads a text file and creates a new file containing the reversed
content of the original file.
4. Write a program to append new text to an existing file without overwriting its content.

CS306 – Lecture 14: Exception Handling in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand what exceptions are and why they occur.

• Learn how to handle exceptions in Python using try, except, else, and finally.
• Explore common built-in exceptions and how to raise custom exceptions.
• Understand the importance of exception handling in making Python programs more
robust.

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⚠️ 1. Introduction to Exceptions

An exception is an event that disrupts the normal flow of a program. When Python encounters
an error, it raises an exception to indicate that something went wrong.

Types of Errors in Python:

1. Syntax Errors: Occur when Python can't interpret the code (e.g., a typo, missing colon).
2. Runtime Errors: Occur during the execution of a program (e.g., dividing by zero,
accessing a non-existent file).
3. Logical Errors: Occur when the program runs but doesn’t do what the programmer
intended.

🔄 2. Exception Handling in Python

Python uses the try, except, else, and finally blocks to handle exceptions. The goal of
exception handling is to gracefully handle errors and allow the program to continue executing
without crashing.

Syntax of Exception Handling:

try:
# Code that may raise an exception
risky_code()
except ExceptionType:
# Code to handle the exception
handle_exception()
else:
# Code to execute if no exception occurs
successful_execution()
finally:
# Code that will always execute, regardless of exception
cleanup()
Components:

• try block: Contains code that might raise an exception.

• except block: Catches the exception and handles it.
• else block: Executes if no exception occurs in the try block.
• finally block: Always executes, regardless of whether an exception occurred or not.

📝 3. try and except Blocks

• try: Code that may raise an exception is placed inside the try block.
• except: Code inside the except block executes when the specified exception occurs.

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Example:
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Error: Cannot divide by zero!")
except ValueError:
print("Error: Invalid input. Please enter an integer.")

In this example:

• The ZeroDivisionError will be raised if the user enters 0 as input.

• The ValueError will be raised if the input is not an integer.

🛑 4. Handling Multiple Exceptions

Python allows multiple except blocks to handle different exceptions separately.

Example:
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Error: Cannot divide by zero!")
except ValueError:
print("Error: Invalid input. Please enter an integer.")
except Exception as e:
print(f"An unexpected error occurred: {e}")

Here, the Exception block catches any other errors that were not explicitly handled.

🔄 5. The else Block

The else block executes if no exception occurs in the try block. This is useful for code that
should run only when the try block is successful.

Example:
try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
result = 10 / num
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Error: Cannot divide by zero!")
except ValueError:
print("Error: Invalid input. Please enter an integer.")
else:
print(f"Result: {result}")

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In this example:

• If no exception occurs, the result is printed in the else block.

💡 6. The finally Block

The finally block always executes, whether an exception is raised or not. It is useful for
cleaning up resources, such as closing files or releasing database connections.

Example:
try:
file = open("data.txt", "r")
content = file.read()
except FileNotFoundError:
print("Error: File not found!")
finally:
file.close()
print("File has been closed.")

Here, the finally block ensures that the file is closed, even if an exception occurs.

🚨 7. Common Built-in Exceptions

Python has several built-in exceptions that can be used in exception handling:

• ZeroDivisionError: Raised when attempting to divide by zero.

• FileNotFoundError: Raised when trying to open a file that doesn’t exist.
• ValueError: Raised when a function receives an argument of the correct type but
inappropriate value.
• IndexError: Raised when trying to access an index that is out of range in a list or tuple.
• KeyError: Raised when trying to access a key that does not exist in a dictionary.

🛠️ 8. Raising Exceptions

Sometimes, you may want to raise your own exceptions. This can be done using the raise
keyword.

Syntax:
raise ExceptionType("Error message")

You can raise built-in exceptions or define your own custom exceptions.

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Example:
x = -1
if x < 0:
raise ValueError("Value cannot be negative!")

In this example, a ValueError is raised if x is less than 0.

🏗️ 9. Custom Exceptions

You can define your own exceptions by inheriting from the built-in Exception class.

Example:
class NegativeValueError(Exception):
def __init__(self, message):
self.message = message
super().__init__(self.message)

# Using the custom exception

x = -5
if x < 0:
raise NegativeValueError("Negative values are not allowed!")

In this example, a custom exception NegativeValueError is created, and it is raised when x is

negative.

🎯 10. Best Practices for Exception Handling

• Only catch exceptions you can handle. Don’t use a generic except unless necessary.
• Use the finally block for cleanup operations.
• Don’t use exceptions for control flow (i.e., don’t rely on exceptions as part of the normal
program logic).
• Raise meaningful custom exceptions with clear error messages.

🧠 11. Summary

• Exceptions are errors that disrupt the normal flow of a program.

• You can handle exceptions in Python using try, except, else, and finally blocks.
• The else block is executed if no exception occurs in the try block.
• The finally block always runs, regardless of whether an exception was raised or not.
• You can raise custom exceptions using the raise keyword.
• Exception handling helps make programs more robust by preventing crashes and
providing useful error messages.

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📝 Homework / Practice

1. Write a Python program that reads a file, counts the number of lines, and handles the case
when the file does not exist.
2. Create a custom exception class called InvalidAgeError and raise it when the user
enters an age less than 0.
3. Write a program that takes user input and handles the exception if the input is not an
integer.
4. Modify a file read program to include exception handling, and ensure that the file is
closed properly in all situations.

CS306 – Lecture 15: Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in Python –

Part 1

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the basic concepts of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP).

• Learn how to define and create classes and objects in Python.
• Understand attributes and methods.
• Learn the concept of self and constructors (__init__ method).

🧠 1. What is Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)?

OOP is a programming paradigm based on the concept of “objects”, which can contain data
(attributes) and functions (methods).

Key Concepts of OOP:

• Class: A blueprint for creating objects.

• Object: An instance of a class.
• Attribute: A variable bound to the object.
• Method: A function bound to the object.

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🧱 2. Classes and Objects in Python

Creating a Class:
class Student:
pass

This defines an empty class named Student.

Creating an Object:
s1 = Student()

Here, s1 is an object (or instance) of the Student class.

⚙️ 3. The __init__() Method (Constructor)

The __init__() method is automatically called when a new object is created. It is used to
initialize attributes.

Example:
class Student:
def __init__(self, name, roll_no):
self.name = name
self.roll_no = roll_no
Creating Objects:
s1 = Student("Ali", 123)
s2 = Student("Sara", 456)
Accessing Attributes:
print(s1.name) # Output: Ali
print(s2.roll_no) # Output: 456

👤 4. The self Keyword

The self keyword refers to the current instance of the class. It must be the first parameter of any
method in the class.

Example:
class Student:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

def greet(self):
print(f"Hello, my name is {self.name}")
Usage:
s = Student("Ayesha")
s.greet() # Output: Hello, my name is Ayesha

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🔧 5. Adding Methods to a Class

You can add multiple methods to perform actions related to the object.

Example:
class Calculator:
def __init__(self, a, b):
self.a = a
self.b = b

def add(self):
return self.a + self.b

def subtract(self):
return self.a - self.b
Using Methods:
calc = Calculator(10, 5)
print(calc.add()) # Output: 15
print(calc.subtract()) # Output: 5

📘 6. Class vs Instance Attributes

• Instance Attributes: Defined in the __init__() method and are unique to each object.
• Class Attributes: Defined outside any methods and shared across all instances.

Example of Class Attribute:

class Dog:
species = "Canine" # class attribute

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name # instance attribute
Access:
d = Dog("Buddy")
print(d.name) # Output: Buddy
print(d.species) # Output: Canine

🔁 7. Dynamic Attributes

Attributes can be added to an object at runtime.

d.age = 5
print(d.age) # Output: 5

However, this is not a common practice and may lead to inconsistent object structures.

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💡 8. The __str__() Method

The __str__() method is used to define how an object is represented as a string.

Example:
class Book:
def __init__(self, title, author):
self.title = title
self.author = author

def __str__(self):
return f"{self.title} by {self.author}"
Usage:
b = Book("Python 101", "John")
print(b) # Output: Python 101 by John

🧪 9. Practice Example
Problem:

Create a class BankAccount with attributes: account holder name, account number, and balance.
Include methods to deposit, withdraw, and check balance.

Solution:
class BankAccount:
def __init__(self, name, account_no, balance=0):
self.name = name
self.account_no = account_no
self.balance = balance

def deposit(self, amount):

self.balance += amount

def withdraw(self, amount):

if amount > self.balance:
print("Insufficient balance!")
else:
self.balance -= amount

def check_balance(self):
print(f"Current balance: {self.balance}")

🧠 10. Summary

• Python supports object-oriented programming using classes and objects.

• The __init__() method initializes object attributes.
• self refers to the current object.
• Attributes can be either instance-level or class-level.
• Methods define the behavior of objects.

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• The __str__() method defines string representation of an object.

📝 Homework / Practice

1. Create a class Car with attributes: make, model, and year. Add a method to display car
information.
2. Define a class Rectangle with attributes length and width, and methods to calculate area
and perimeter.
3. Create a class Person with attributes name and age, and a method is_adult() that
returns True if age >= 18.

CS306 – Lecture 16: Object-Oriented Programming in Python – Part 2

(Inheritance and Polymorphism)

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the concept of inheritance in Python.

• Learn how to create subclasses.
• Explore the use of the super() function.
• Understand polymorphism and method overriding.

🧬 1. Inheritance in Python

Inheritance allows a class (child/subclass) to inherit attributes and methods from another class
(parent/superclass).

Benefits of Inheritance:

• Code reusability
• Better organization of code
• Supports extensibility

Syntax:
class Parent:
# parent class code

class Child(Parent):

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# child class code

🧱 2. Example: Simple Inheritance

class Animal:
def speak(self):
print("Animal speaks")

class Dog(Animal):
pass

d = Dog()
d.speak() # Output: Animal speaks

Here, Dog inherits the speak() method from Animal.

3. Overriding Methods

A child class can override methods of its parent class.

class Animal:
def speak(self):
print("Animal speaks")

class Dog(Animal):
def speak(self):
print("Dog barks")

d = Dog()
d.speak() # Output: Dog barks

🪜 4. The super() Function

The super() function is used to call methods from the parent class.

Example:
class Animal:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

def speak(self):
print(f"{self.name} makes a sound")

class Dog(Animal):
def __init__(self, name, breed):
super().__init__(name)
self.breed = breed

def speak(self):

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super().speak()
print(f"{self.name} barks")
Usage:
d = Dog("Buddy", "Labrador")
d.speak()

Output:

Buddy makes a sound

Buddy barks

🔄 5. Types of Inheritance in Python

1. Single Inheritance
o One child class inherits from one parent class.
2. Multiple Inheritance
o One child class inherits from multiple parent classes.
3. Multilevel Inheritance
o A class is derived from a derived class.
4. Hierarchical Inheritance
o Multiple child classes inherit from a single parent.

🧪 6. Example: Multiple Inheritance

class Father:
def skills(self):
print("Gardening, Programming")

class Mother:
def skills(self):
print("Cooking, Art")

class Child(Father, Mother):

def skills(self):
Father.skills(self)
Mother.skills(self)
print("Sports")

c = Child()
c.skills()

Output:

Gardening, Programming
Cooking, Art
Sports

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🔁 7. Polymorphism

Polymorphism allows different classes to define methods with the same name, but possibly
different behaviors.

Example:
class Bird:
def fly(self):
print("Bird can fly")

class Airplane:
def fly(self):
print("Airplane flies in the sky")

# Polymorphism using function

def fly_test(entity):
entity.fly()

b = Bird()
a = Airplane()

fly_test(b) # Output: Bird can fly

fly_test(a) # Output: Airplane flies in the sky

🔄 8. The isinstance() Function

Used to check if an object belongs to a specific class or its subclass.

print(isinstance(d, Dog)) # True

print(isinstance(d, Animal)) # True

💡 9. Real-World Example
Problem:

Model a Person class and derive a Student class that adds student-specific attributes and
behavior.

Code:
class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name

def introduce(self):
print(f"Hi, I'm {self.name}")

class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, name, student_id):
super().__init__(name)
self.student_id = student_id

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def introduce(self):
print(f"Hi, I'm {self.name}, my student ID is {self.student_id}")
Usage:
s = Student("Aisha", "VU1234")
s.introduce() # Output: Hi, I'm Aisha, my student ID is VU1234

🧠 10. Summary

• Inheritance allows reuse of code from parent classes.

• Method Overriding lets you modify inherited behavior.
• The super() function accesses methods from the parent class.
• Polymorphism enables different classes to use the same method names with different
implementations.
• Python supports multiple types of inheritance, including multiple and multilevel.

📝 Homework / Practice

1. Create a class Employee with attributes name and salary. Create a subclass Manager that
adds a department.
2. Model a Vehicle class and derive Car and Bike classes with specific attributes.
3. Demonstrate method overriding using a Shape class and Circle and Square subclasses.

CS306 – Lecture 17: Encapsulation and Data Hiding in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the concept of encapsulation in object-oriented programming.

• Learn how to implement data hiding in Python.
• Differentiate between public, protected, and private attributes.
• Use getter and setter methods to control access.

🔐 1. What is Encapsulation?

Encapsulation is the process of bundling data (attributes) and methods that operate on that data
into a single unit — a class.

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It also helps in restricting direct access to some of an object’s components, which is known as
data hiding.

📦 2. Importance of Encapsulation

• Controls access to the internal state of objects.

• Improves code maintainability and flexibility.
• Protects object integrity by preventing unintended changes.

🧑‍💼 3. Access Modifiers in Python

Python uses conventions (not strict rules) to denote access control:

Modifier Syntax Access Level

Public var Accessible anywhere

Protected _var Accessible in subclass

Private __var Name mangled, internal use only

✅ 4. Public Members

Accessible from anywhere.

class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name # public

p = Person("Ali")
print(p.name) # Output: Ali

🛡 5. Protected Members

Convention: prefix with a single underscore _.

class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
self._name = name # protected

class Student(Person):
def display(self):

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print("Name:", self._name)

s = Student("Sara")
s.display() # Output: Name: Sara

Note: It's still accessible, but considered for internal use or subclassing.

🔒 6. Private Members

Prefix with double underscore __. Python does name mangling, making the variable harder to
access from outside.

class Person:
def __init__(self, name):
self.__name = name # private

p = Person("Usman")
# print(p.__name) # Error: AttributeError

# Access using name mangling

print(p._Person__name) # Output: Usman

⚙️ 7. Getter and Setter Methods

Used to safely access or modify private attributes.

Example:
class BankAccount:
def __init__(self):
self.__balance = 0

def get_balance(self):
return self.__balance

def set_balance(self, amount):

if amount >= 0:
self.__balance = amount
else:
print("Invalid amount")

acc = BankAccount()
acc.set_balance(1000)
print(acc.get_balance()) # Output: 1000

🧠 8. Properties (Alternative to Getters/Setters)

Python provides a built-in @property decorator.

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class BankAccount:
def __init__(self):
self.__balance = 0

@property
def balance(self):
return self.__balance

@balance.setter
def balance(self, amount):
if amount >= 0:
self.__balance = amount
else:
print("Invalid amount")

acc = BankAccount()
acc.balance = 500
print(acc.balance) # Output: 500

🔄 9. Practical Example
Problem: Model a Student class with name and GPA, ensuring GPA is validated (0.0 to 4.0).
class Student:
def __init__(self, name):
self.__name = name
self.__gpa = 0.0

def set_gpa(self, gpa):

if 0.0 <= gpa <= 4.0:
self.__gpa = gpa
else:
print("Invalid GPA")

def get_gpa(self):
return self.__gpa

s = Student("Maria")
s.set_gpa(3.5)
print(s.get_gpa()) # Output: 3.5

📌 10. Summary

• Encapsulation keeps data safe from unintended access or modification.

• Python supports public, protected, and private attributes (by convention).
• Use getter/setter methods or @property decorators to access or update private variables
safely.
• Data hiding improves program security and flexibility.

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📝 Homework / Practice

1. Create a Car class with private attributes model and price. Add getter and setter
methods.
2. Implement a Rectangle class that hides its length and width and calculates area
through a public method.
3. Use @property to manage access to a Student class's percentage attribute.

CS306 – Lecture 18: Working with Files in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand how to create, open, read, and write files in Python.

• Learn about different file modes.
• Use the with statement to handle files safely.
• Handle file exceptions.

📂 1. Introduction to File Handling

File handling is used to store data permanently into files (external storage like .txt, .csv, etc.).

Python provides built-in functions for:

• Creating files
• Writing to files
• Reading from files
• Appending data
• Closing files

🛠️ 2. Opening Files with open()

Syntax:

file_object = open("filename", "mode")

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Common File Modes:

Mode Description

'r' Read (default), error if file doesn’t exist

'w' Write, creates file if not exists (overwrites)

'a' Append, creates if not exists

'b' Binary mode

'+' Read & write mode

📘 3. Writing to a File
Example:
file = open("data.txt", "w")
file.write("Hello, world!")
file.close()

Creates or overwrites data.txt with the content.

📗 4. Reading from a File

file = open("data.txt", "r")
content = file.read()
print(content)
file.close()
Other Read Methods:

• read(): Reads entire file

• readline(): Reads one line
• readlines(): Reads all lines as a list

📙 5. Appending to a File
file = open("data.txt", "a")
file.write("\nNew line added.")
file.close()

✅ 6. Using with Statement (Best Practice)

Automatically closes the file after execution.

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with open("data.txt", "r") as file:

print(file.read())
For Writing:
with open("data.txt", "w") as file:
file.write("Overwritten content.")

⚠️ 7. File Not Found Error

Always check if the file exists when using read mode.

try:
with open("nonexistent.txt", "r") as f:
print(f.read())
except FileNotFoundError:
print("File does not exist.")

🧪 8. Example: Write & Read Student Records

Writing:
with open("students.txt", "w") as file:
file.write("Ali, 85\n")
file.write("Sara, 92\n")
Reading:
with open("students.txt", "r") as file:
for line in file:
print(line.strip())

🔁 9. Working with Binary Files

with open("image.jpg", "rb") as f:
data = f.read()

with open("copy.jpg", "wb") as f:

f.write(data)

🧠 10. Summary

• Python provides open() for file handling with multiple modes (r, w, a, etc.).
• Always close the file or use with to do it automatically.
• Use exception handling to manage file errors.
• Files can be read as full text, line-by-line, or into lists.
• Binary files use 'rb' and 'wb' modes.

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📝 Homework / Practice

1. Write a Python program to create a file called marks.txt and store 5 students’ names
and marks.
2. Read from the marks.txt file and print each student's result.
3. Use the with statement to append new student data to marks.txt.

CS306 – Lecture 19: Exception Handling in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand what exceptions are and why they occur.

• Learn how to handle exceptions using try, except, finally, and else.
• Explore built-in exception types.
• Raise custom exceptions using raise.

⚠️ 1. What is an Exception?

An exception is an error that occurs during the execution of a program, disrupting its normal
flow.

Example:
x = 10 / 0 # ZeroDivisionError

Without handling, the program crashes.

🧱 2. Exception Handling Syntax

try:
# Code that may raise an exception
except ExceptionType:
# Code to handle the exception
Example:
try:
a = int(input("Enter a number: "))
b = 10 / a
print("Result:", b)
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("You cannot divide by zero.")

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🔁 3. Catching Multiple Exceptions

try:
x = int("abc")
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input.")
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Division error.")

You can also combine them:

try:
# some code
except (ValueError, ZeroDivisionError) as e:
print("Error:", e)

✅ 4. Using else Clause

Executes if no exception occurs.

try:
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
except ValueError:
print("Invalid number.")
else:
print("Square is", num ** 2)

🔒 5. Using finally Clause

Always executes, regardless of whether an exception occurred.

try:
file = open("sample.txt", "r")
content = file.read()
except FileNotFoundError:
print("File not found.")
finally:
print("Cleaning up.")

⚙️ 6. Raising Exceptions Manually

You can raise exceptions using raise.

age = -5
if age < 0:
raise ValueError("Age cannot be negative.")

Notes for CS306 introduction to python

Noor institute of technology

📚 7. Common Built-in Exceptions

Exception Description

ZeroDivisionError Division by zero

ValueError Invalid value

TypeError Wrong type of data

FileNotFoundError File not found

IndexError List index out of range

KeyError Dictionary key not found

🧪 8. Example: File Handling with Exception

try:
with open("marks.txt", "r") as file:
data = file.read()
print(data)
except FileNotFoundError:
print("The file was not found.")
finally:
print("File operation complete.")

🧠 9. Summary

• Use try...except to catch and handle exceptions.

• Use else for code that runs if no exception occurs.
• Use finally to execute cleanup code regardless of exceptions.
• Raise exceptions manually using raise.
• Knowing built-in exceptions helps debug effectively.

📝 Homework / Practice

1. Write a program that asks the user to input a number and handles:
o ValueError if input is not a number.
o ZeroDivisionError if user enters 0.
2. Read a file called data.txt, handle missing file errors and display contents.
3. Write a custom function that raises a ValueError if input is not in a valid range.

Notes for CS306 introduction to python

Noor institute of technology

CS306 – Lecture 20: Working with Modules in Python

🎯 Lecture Objectives

• Understand the concept of modules in Python.

• Learn how to import and use built-in and user-defined modules.
• Discover the use of the dir() function.
• Understand the __name__ == "__main__" idiom.
• Explore the math and random modules.

📦 1. What is a Module?

A module is a file containing Python code (functions, classes, variables) that can be reused in
other programs.

Any .py file is a module.

🔁 2. Importing Modules
Syntax:
import module_name
Example:
import math
print(math.sqrt(16)) # Output: 4.0

Import Specific Items:

from math import sqrt
print(sqrt(25))
Import with Alias:
import math as m
print(m.pi)

🛠️ 3. Common Built-in Modules

Module Description

math Mathematical operations

random Generate random numbers

datetime Date and time manipulation

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Module Description

os Interacting with operating system

sys System-specific parameters

🔢 4. The math Module

Common Functions:
Function Description

math.sqrt(x) Square root

math.pow(x, y) x raised to the power y

math.floor(x) Round down

math.ceil(x) Round up

math.pi Value of π

Example:
import math
print(math.floor(4.7)) # Output: 4

🎲 5. The random Module

Used for generating random numbers.

Example:
import random
print(random.randint(1, 10)) # Random int between 1 and 10
Other Functions:
Function Description

random.random() Float between 0.0 to 1.0

random.choice(list) Randomly select from list

random.shuffle(list) Shuffle list

📄 6. Creating Your Own Module

Suppose you create a file named mytools.py:

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def greet(name):
return f"Hello, {name}!"

You can use it in another file:

import mytools
print(mytools.greet("Ali"))

🧭 7. Using dir() Function

Lists all functions, classes, and variables defined in a module.

import math
print(dir(math))

🔍 8. __name__ == "__main__"

Used to separate module usage and script execution.

# file: greet.py
def hello():
print("Hello!")

if __name__ == "__main__":
hello()

When greet.py is imported in another file, hello() won’t run unless called directly.

🧠 9. Summary

• Modules organize and reuse code across programs.

• Use import, from ... import, or aliases to access module content.
• Python includes many powerful built-in modules (math, random, etc.).
• You can create your own modules by saving Python code in .py files.
• __name__ == "__main__" ensures code only runs when executed directly.

📝 Homework / Practice

1. Import the math module and display:

o Square root of 100
o Value of pi
o Result of math.pow(2, 5)

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Noor institute of technology

2. Create a module named mycalc.py with two functions: add(x, y) and subtract(x,
y). Import and use them in another script.
3. Use the random module to create a simple dice roll simulation.

Notes for CS306 introduction to python