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Plant Kingdom

Algae: Chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic, mostly aquatic organisms

Habitats: freshwater, marine, moist stones, soils, wood, symbiotic with fungi (lichen) and
animals
Size/Form: Colonial (e.g., Volvox), filamentous (e.g., Ulothrix, Spirogyra), large marine kelps

Reproduction
Vegetative: fragmentation (each fragment forms a new thallus)
Asexual: production of spores (mainly flagellated zoospores)
Sexual: fusion of gametes
Isogamous: gametes similar in size and motile (e.g., Ulothrix)
Anisogamous: gametes dissimilar in size (e.g., Eudorina)
Oogamous: large non-motile female gamete + smaller motile male gamete (e.g.,
Volvox, Fucus)

Economic & Ecological Importance

Fix ~50% of Earth’s CO₂ via photosynthesis
Increase dissolved oxygen in water
Primary producers in aquatic food chains
Edible species: Porphyra, Laminaria, Sargassum
Hydrocolloids: algin (brown algae), carrageenan (red algae)
Agar from Gelidium, Gracilaria used in microbiology, food industry
Chlorella: protein-rich food supplement

Classification of Algae
Divided into three main classes: Chlorophyceae (green), Phaeophyceae (brown),
Rhodophyceae (red)

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3.1.1 Chlorophyceae (Green Algae)

Plant body: unicellular, colonial, or filamentous

Pigments: chlorophyll a and b (grass green)
Chloroplast shapes: discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral, ribbon-shaped
Storage: pyrenoids (protein + starch), oil droplets in some
Cell wall: inner cellulose layer + outer pectose layer
Reproduction:
Vegetative: fragmentation
Asexual: flagellated zoospores in zoosporangia
Sexual: isogamous, anisogamous, or oogamous

Examples: Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Chara

3.1.2 Phaeophyceae (Brown Algae)

Habitat: primarily marine

Size/Form: filamentous (Ectocarpus) to large kelps (up to 100 m)
Pigments: chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids, xanthophylls (fucoxanthin)
Color: olive green to brown shades
Food storage: laminarin or mannitol
Cell wall: cellulose + gelatinous algin coating
Structure: holdfast (attachment), stipe (stalk), frond (leaf-like)
Reproduction:
Vegetative: fragmentation
Asexual: biflagellate pear-shaped zoospores with two unequal lateral flagella
Sexual: isogamous, anisogamous, oogamous; gametes pear-shaped with two lateral flagella

Examples: Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum, Fucus

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3.1.3 Rhodophyceae (Red Algae)

Pigments: chlorophyll a, d, phycoerythrin (red pigment)

Habitat: mostly marine, found from surface to deep ocean
Thallus: multicellular, sometimes complex
Food storage: floridean starch (similar to amylopectin/glycogen)
Reproduction:
Vegetative: fragmentation
Asexual: non-motile spores
Sexual: oogamous with complex post-fertilization development

Cell wall: cellulose, pectin, polysulphate esters

Examples: Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria, Gelidium

Table 3.1: Divisions of Algae and Their Main Characteristics

Class Common Major Stored Cell Wall Flagella Habitat

Name Pigments Food Composition (Number
&
Position)

Chlorophyceae Green Chlorophyll Starch Cellulose 2-8, Freshwater,

algae a, b equal, brackish,
apical saltwater

Phaeophyceae Brown Chlorophyll Mannitol, Cellulose + 2, Mostly

algae a, c, laminarin algin unequal, marine,
fucoxanthin lateral rare
freshwater

Rhodophyceae Red Chlorophyll Floridean Cellulose, Absent Mostly

algae a, d, starch pectin, marine,
phycoerythrin polysulphate some
esters freshwater

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3.2 Bryophytes

Include mosses and liverworts

Habitat: moist, shaded, humid areas (hills, rocks, soil)
Called amphibians of plant kingdom: live on soil but need water for sexual reproduction
Role: pioneer species in plant succession on bare rocks/soil
Plant body: thallus-like, prostrate or erect, attached by unicellular/multicellular rhizoids
Lack true roots, stems, leaves but may have analogous structures
Dominant phase: haploid gametophyte (produces gametes)
Sex organs:
Male: antheridium (produces biflagellate antherozoids)
Female: archegonium (flask-shaped, produces single egg)

Fertilization: antherozoids swim in water to archegonium → zygote formation

Sporophyte: multicellular, attached to gametophyte, dependent on it for nutrition
Sporophyte undergoes meiosis → haploid spores → gametophyte

Economic/ecological importance:
Food for herbivores
Sphagnum moss: peat fuel, packing material (water retention)
Mosses & lichens: first colonizers of rocks, prevent soil erosion

3.2.1 Liverworts

Habitat: moist, shady (stream banks, marshy ground, tree bark)

Plant body: thalloid, dorsiventral, closely appressed to substrate (e.g., Marchantia)
Leafy liverworts: tiny leaf-like appendages in two rows on stem-like structures
Asexual reproduction:
Fragmentation of thalli
Gemmae: multicellular buds in gemma cups; detach and germinate

Sexual reproduction:
Male and female sex organs on same or different thalli
Sporophyte differentiated into foot, seta, capsule
Meiosis in capsule produces spores → free-living gametophytes

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Life cycle stages:

1. Protonema: filamentous, creeping, green stage from spore germination
2. Leafy stage: upright axes with spirally arranged leaves from lateral buds

Attached to soil by multicellular branched rhizoids

Vegetative reproduction: fragmentation, budding in secondary protonema
Sexual reproduction:
Antheridia and archegonia at apex of leafy shoots
Fertilization → zygote → sporophyte (foot, seta, capsule)
Capsule produces spores after meiosis
Elaborate spore dispersal mechanisms

Examples: Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum

3.3 Pteridophytes

Include horsetails and ferns

Uses: medicinal, soil binders, ornamentals
Evolutionary significance: first terrestrial plants with vascular tissues (xylem, phloem)
Habitat: cool, damp, shady; some in sandy soils
Dominant phase: sporophyte (true root, stem, leaves)
Leaves:
Microphylls (small, e.g., Selaginella)
Macrophylls (large, e.g., ferns)

Sporophyte bears sporangia on sporophylls; sporophylls may form strobili/cones (e.g., Selaginella,
Equisetum)
Sporangia produce spores by meiosis → spores germinate into free-living, photosynthetic
gametophytes (prothallus)
Gametophytes bear antheridia (male) and archegonia (female)
Water required for antherozoid transfer to archegonium
Fertilization → zygote → sporophyte
Spore types:
Homosporous: one spore type (most pteridophytes)
Heterosporous: two spore types (macro- and microspores), e.g., Selaginella, Salvinia

Female gametophytes retained on parent sporophyte; embryo development occurs within female
gametophyte (precursor to seed habit)

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Classes:
Psilopsida (Psilotum)
Lycopsida (Selaginella, Lycopodium)
Sphenopsida (Equisetum)
Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum)

3.4 Gymnosperms

Meaning: “gymnos” = naked, “sperma” = seeds

Ovules/seeds are exposed (not enclosed in ovary) before and after fertilization
Forms: medium to tall trees, shrubs
Example: Sequoia (giant redwood, one of tallest trees)
Roots: generally tap roots
Some with mycorrhizal fungi (Pinus)
Some with coralloid roots hosting nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria (Cycas)

Stems: unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus)

Leaves: simple or compound
Cycas: pinnate leaves persistent for years
Conifers: needle-like leaves with thick cuticle, sunken stomata to reduce water loss

Adaptations: withstand extremes of temperature, humidity, wind

Gymnosperms

Spores and Sporophylls

Heterosporous: Produce two types of haploid spores

Microspores (male)
Megaspores (female)

Spores produced in sporangia borne on sporophylls

Sporophylls arranged spirally along an axis forming strobili (cones)
Microsporangiate (male) strobili: bear microsporophylls and microsporangia
Megasporangiate (female) strobili: bear megasporophylls with ovules (megasporangia)

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Male Gametophyte (Pollen Grain)

Develops from microspores inside microsporangia

Highly reduced, limited number of cells
Released as pollen grains
Carried by air currents to female cones

Female Gametophyte and Ovule

Ovule: nucellus + protective envelopes

Ovules borne on megasporophylls, sometimes clustered into female cones
Megaspore mother cell in nucellus undergoes meiosis → 4 megaspores
One megaspore develops into multicellular female gametophyte inside megasporangium
Female gametophyte bears multiple archegonia (female sex organs)

Gametophyte Independence

Male and female gametophytes remain within sporangia on sporophyte

No free-living gametophyte stage (unlike bryophytes, pteridophytes)

Fertilization and Seed Formation

Pollen grain lands near ovule opening

Pollen tube grows toward archegonia, releases male gametes
Fertilization forms zygote → embryo
Ovule develops into seed (naked, not enclosed by ovary)

Figure 3.4 Gymnosperms: (a) Cycas (b) Pinus © Ginkgo

3.5 Angiosperms

Key Features

Ovules enclosed within flowers

Seeds enclosed in fruits
Largest group of plants, diverse habitats
Size range: smallest Wolffia to tall Eucalyptus (>100 m)
Provide food, fodder, fuel, medicines, commercial products

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Classification

Class Characteristics Example

Dicotyledons Two cotyledons, net-veined leaves Sunflower

Monocotyledons One cotyledon, parallel-veined leaves Grass

Figure 3.5 Angiosperms: (a) Dicotyledon (b) Monocotyledon

Summary of Plant Groups

Group Key Features Reproduction & Life Cycle Highlights

Algae Chlorophyll-bearing, simple, mostly Vegetative (fragmentation), asexual

aquatic, thalloid (spores), sexual (gametes)

Bryophytes Terrestrial, dependent on water for Dominant gametophyte; antheridia &

reproduction, thallus-like or leafy archegonia produce gametes

Pteridophytes True roots, stems, leaves with Dominant sporophyte; spores →

vascular tissue gametophytes; require water for
fertilization

Gymnosperms Naked ovules, cones with Male/female cones; pollen grains; seeds
sporophylls, heterosporous exposed

Angiosperms Flowers with enclosed ovules, Divided into dicots and monocots
seeds in fruits

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1. What is the basis of classification of algae?

2. When and where does reduction division take place in liverwort, moss, fern, gymnosperm, and
angiosperm?
3. Name three plant groups bearing archegonia. Describe the life cycle of one.
4. Mention ploidy of:
Protonemal cell of moss
Primary endosperm nucleus in dicot
Leaf cell of moss
Prothallus cell of fern
Gemma cell in Marchantia
Meristem cell of monocot
Ovum of liverwort
Zygote of fern

5. Write notes on economic importance of algae and gymnosperms.

6. Why are gymnosperms and angiosperms classified separately despite both bearing seeds?
7. Define heterospory and comment on its significance. Give two examples.
8. Explain briefly:
(i) protonema
(ii) antheridium
(iii) archegonium
(iv) diplontic
(v) sporophyll
(vi) isogamy

9. Differentiate between:
(i) red algae and brown algae
(ii) liverworts and moss
(iii) homosporous and heterosporous pteridophytes

10. Match the following:

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Column I Column II

(a) Chlamydomonas (iii) Algae

(b) Cycas (iv) Gymnosperm

© Selaginella (ii) Pteridophyte

(d) Sphagnum (i) Moss

11. Describe important characteristics of gymnosperms.

Note: Gymnosperms are naked-seeded plants with exposed ovules; angiosperms have
enclosed ovules within flowers and fruits.

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