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C-01 LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM

Prof. KUNJAN PATADIA

UNIT -1
1.1 Language as a means of construction of reality, language, and experience

Broadly speaking, language is a means of communication. It is through this means that the interaction
between human beings takes place. Without language, says H.L. Smith, “there could be no culture, and the
man remained hominoid, with language and culture he became hominine.”

“Man is a social animal,” remarked Aristotle long ago, and he is ‘a social animal’ by virtue of language.
Society cannot exist without language any more than language can without society. Society and language
are thus correlated. Language is, in fact, the index of the progress of a society from its primitive stage to
an advanced one.

Language as stated by Noam Chomsky is “a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and
constructed out of a finite set of elements” (Chomsky 1957:13).

Language has been nicely defined by Edward Sapir as “a purely human and non-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.”

Language plays a fundamental role in constructing our reality in several key ways

Naming and Categorization: We can give names to things, ideas, and experiences thanks to language.
We classify and make sense of the world around us by giving things labels. For instance, the word "tree"
encompasses a wide range of physical attributes and shapes that we identify as being a part of the family
Tree.

Expressing and Communicating Experience: We can communicate our ideas, feelings, and experiences
to other people through language. We create shared understandings by sharing our particular realities and
working together to establish common understandings through tales, descriptions, and conversations. This
process influences our perception and interpretation of events.

Shaping Perceptions: Words, phrases, or sentence structures that highlight particular aspects of
experience may vary among languages. Certain languages possess specialized terminology related to
emotions or cultural ideas that may not be easily translated into other languages. This language framing
has the power to influence how members of a specific linguistic group understand and react to reality.

Social Reality: Language is crucial for social interaction and cooperation. It allows individuals to
coordinate activities, negotiate relationships, and establish shared meanings. The language used within a
community not only reflects social norms but also helps to reinforce and perpetuate them.
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Building Cultural Reality: Culture and language are closely related. It both reflects and upholds the
norms, values, and beliefs of the culture. A language's idioms, metaphors, and stories express cultural
attitudes and mold its speakers' worldviews. Therefore, language has a role in creating and preserving
cultural realities and reflecting reality. Language is deeply intertwined with culture. It reflects cultural
values, norms, and beliefs, and contributes to the transmission of cultural knowledge across generations.
Idioms, metaphors, and narratives within a language convey cultural attitudes and shape the worldview of
its speakers.

Construction of Memory and Identity: Language plays a vital role in how we remember and interpret
our personal histories. The narratives we construct about our lives are shaped by the language we use to
recount them. Similarly, language contributes to the formation and expression of individual and collective
identities

Influence on Behaviour: The words and language patterns we use can influence our behaviour and
decision-making processes. For example, the framing of information (positive or negative language) can
affect how we perceive risks and benefits, influencing our choices and actions.

Limitations and Viewpoints: Language structure, such as syntax and grammar, can affect how concepts
are generated and comprehended. Distinct linguistic systems may provide more weight to particular
viewpoints or methods of information organization, which can impact mental operations and patterns of
reasoning.

Evolution and Change: As societal, technological, and cultural norms and practices change throughout
time, so do languages. Older terms may become obsolete as new ones appear to characterize inventions or
phenomena. These changes are a reflection of more general changes in society's values and reality
perceptions.

Essentially, language is an essential component of our perception, interpretation, and construction of

reality and experiences, not merely a means of communication. We can better understand the intricate
connections between language, cognition, and culture by researching how language shapes perception.

1.2 Relationship of language and society: Identity, Power, and Discrimination

Language and society have a complex and diverse interaction, especially when it comes to discrimination,
power dynamics, and identity:

➢ Identity:

Individual Identity: The development and expression of a person's identity depend heavily on
language. Speaking a language or language can have an impact on how someone feels about themselves
and how other people see them. For example, bilingual people who use multiple languages—each
connected to distinct cultural or social situations—may have distinct identities in these contexts.
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Group Identity: In civilizations, language frequently acts as a marker for group identity. Language
variants, accents, and dialects can all be used to identify a person as belonging to a specific social,
regional, or ethnic group. Language use can improve a group's sense of unity and cohesion by giving
its members a sense of belonging.

Language plays a crucial role in creating and shaping identity in several significant ways:

1. Expressing Cultural Heritage: Language often serves as a repository of cultural heritage and values.
The words, idioms, and expressions unique to a language convey historical experiences, traditions, and
collective memories of a community. For individuals within that community, language can serve as a
powerful connection to their cultural roots and shared identity.

2. Group Affiliation: The language(s) one speaks can signal group affiliation and membership in specific
social, regional, ethnic, or national communities. Language choices reflect shared experiences, values,
and norms that contribute to a sense of belonging among speakers. For example, speaking a particular
dialect or language variety can indicate belonging to a specific subgroup within a larger community.

3. Personal Expression and Self-Concept: Language enables individuals to express their thoughts,
emotions, and personal experiences. The vocabulary, grammar, and linguistic styles individuals use
can reflect their personalities, beliefs, and unique ways of understanding the world. Through language,
individuals construct narratives about themselves and communicate aspects of their identity to others.

4. Social Interaction and Communication: Language shapes how individuals interact with others and
participate in social contexts. The language(s) one uses can influence social perceptions, relationships,
and opportunities for engagement within different communities. Mastery of certain languages or
language varieties may facilitate social integration or acceptance within specific social circles.

5. Identity Negotiation and Adaptation: Language allows individuals to navigate and negotiate their
identities in diverse social contexts. Bilingual and multilingual individuals may switch between
languages depending on the situation, adapting their language use to fit different cultural norms and
expectations. This fluidity in language choice and identity negotiation reflects the dynamic nature of
identity construction.

6. Linguistic Repertoires: Many individuals possess linguistic repertoires that include multiple
languages or dialects. These repertoires are shaped by factors such as family background, education,
migration experiences, and cultural influences. The ability to navigate and switch between different
languages contributes to complex and multifaceted identities that evolve. In essence, language is not
just a tool for communication but a fundamental aspect of identity formation and expression. It
intertwines with cultural, social, and personal dimensions to shape how individuals perceive
themselves and are perceived by others. Language use reflects and reinforces aspects of identity while
also influencing social interactions, opportunities, and experiences within diverse communities.
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➢ Power:

Linguistic hegemony is the ability of dominant languages or dialects to rule over others in a society.
Minority languages and their speakers may be marginalized or silenced by this linguistic hegemony.
Policies that support a single official language, for instance, may penalize speakers of minority
languages in the workplace, in school, and while gaining access to services.

Language Policy: Language-related government regulations have the potential to both reflect and
strengthen social power structures. Language choices can either empower or marginalize distinct
linguistic minorities in the context of education, the media, and governance. Power disparities may be
lessened by implementing policies that support linguistic variety and inclusivity.

The relationship between language and society in the context of power is intricate and multifaceted,
influencing various aspects of social dynamics and hierarchies:

>Language as a Marker of Social Status and Prestige:

o Standard vs. Non-Standard Varieties: Societies often assign higher prestige and social status
to speakers of standard or dominant languages. Mastery of these languages can provide
individuals with access to educational and economic opportunities, reinforcing social
inequalities.
o Cultural Capital: Proficiency in certain languages can signify cultural capital, enhancing an
individual's perceived sophistication and social standing. This cultural capital may extend to
access to cultural institutions, networks, and social circles.

>Language and Economic Power:

o Global Trade and Commerce: Proficiency in widely spoken languages facilitates

participation in global trade, business negotiations, and international relations. Countries or
communities with linguistic influence can leverage this advantage for economic growth and
development.
o Labor Market Dynamics: Language skills influence employability and earning potential.
Proficiency in dominant languages may open doors to higher-paying jobs, particularly in
sectors requiring international communication or specialized knowledge.

>Political Influence and Governance:

o Official Language Policies: Governments often designate official languages that shape public
administration, legal proceedings, and educational curricula. These policies can impact
linguistic minorities' access to services, representation, and participation in governance.
o Political Mobilization: Language can be a tool for political mobilization and identity
formation. Movements advocating for linguistic rights, cultural autonomy, or recognition of
minority languages challenge power structures and assert demands for social justice and
equality.

>Media and Communication:

o Media Representation: Language influences media representation and discourse, shaping

public opinion and cultural narratives. Media platforms in dominant languages wield influence
over public discourse, societal norms, and perceptions of reality.
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o Information Access: Proficiency in dominant languages enables access to information,

knowledge dissemination, and participation in intellectual and cultural debates. Language
barriers can limit individuals' ability to engage fully in social, political, and economic spheres.

>Social Integration and Exclusion:

o Linguistic Diversity: Societies with linguistic diversity face challenges of inclusivity and
social cohesion. Language policies and attitudes can either promote integration and mutual
understanding or perpetuate marginalization and discrimination against linguistic minorities.
o Education and Social Mobility: Language proficiency impacts educational attainment and
social mobility. Educational systems that prioritize dominant languages may disadvantage
students from linguistic minority backgrounds, perpetuating cycles of inequality.

>Cultural Influence and Soft Power:

o Cultural Hegemony: Dominant languages facilitate the spread of cultural products (e.g.,
literature, media, arts) globally, influencing cultural norms and identities. Countries or
communities with linguistic influence can assert soft power and shape global cultural trends.
o Cultural Preservation: Language revitalization efforts aim to preserve cultural heritage and
identity, challenging cultural homogenization and asserting the value of linguistic diversity in
global contexts.

In conclusion, language serves as a critical axis of power in society, influencing social status, economic
opportunities, political representation, cultural influence, and social inclusion. Understanding the
dynamics of language and power is essential for addressing inequalities, promoting linguistic diversity,
and fostering inclusive societies that respect and empower linguistic minorities

➢ Discrimination

Language-Based Discrimination: Discrimination based on language can take many different forms,
including prejudice against certain languages, language-based stereotypes, and exclusion from
opportunities because of one's accent or level of language competency. Opportunities for speakers of
particular languages or dialects may be restricted by, for instance, employment discrimination based
on accents or language competency levels.

Language and Social Status: Attitudes towards languages and dialects within a society might serve
as an indicator of wider social classes. Non-standard language variations could be stigmatized,
although standard language variants are frequently linked to higher social position and prestige.
Disparities depending on language background may be sustained by this linguistic bias.

In conclusion, language profoundly influences social dynamics, including identity formation, power
relations, and experiences of discrimination within societies. Recognizing the complexities of language
use and policies is essential for promoting linguistic diversity, cultural understanding, and social
justice.

The relationship between language and society in the context of discrimination is complex and
pervasive, affecting various aspects of individuals' lives and societal structures:

>Linguistic Discrimination:
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Language Proficiency and Employment: Individuals may face discrimination in employment based
on their language proficiency or accent. Employers' preferences for specific languages or dialects can
limit job opportunities for speakers of non-standard varieties or minority languages.

Access to Services: Language barriers can hinder access to essential services such as healthcare, legal
aid, and government assistance. Lack of language support or interpretation services marginalizes
linguistic minorities and impedes their ability to navigate bureaucratic processes.

Educational Disparities: Educational systems that prioritize dominant languages may disadvantage
students from linguistic minority backgrounds. Limited resources for bilingual education or support
for heritage languages can perpetuate inequalities in academic achievement.

>Social Exclusion and Stigmatization:

Language-based Stereotypes: Speakers of non-standard or minority languages may face stereotypes

associating their language use with lower intelligence, cultural backwardness, or social inferiority.
These stereotypes contribute to social stigma and prejudice against linguistic minorities.

Segregation and Isolation: Language barriers can lead to social segregation and isolation within
communities. Linguistic minorities may form isolated enclaves due to difficulties in integrating into a
broader society where dominant languages prevail.

>Legal and Political Representation:

Language Policies: Government policies regarding language use in official contexts can marginalize
linguistic minorities. Lack of recognition or support for minority languages limits political
representation and participation, reinforcing inequalities in governance and decision-making
processes.

Legal Rights: Limited access to legal services in one's native language can compromise individuals'
ability to understand and defend their rights. Language barriers in legal proceedings can result in unfair
treatment and unequal access to justice.

>Cultural Assimilation and Identity Loss:

Assimilation Pressures: Societal expectations to conform to dominant languages and cultural norms
can lead to the erosion of linguistic diversity and cultural identities. Linguistic minorities may face
pressures to abandon their native languages in favor of assimilation into the majority culture.

Language Endangerment: Discriminatory attitudes and policies contribute to language

endangerment and loss. Without support for language revitalization and preservation efforts, minority
languages may face extinction, resulting in the loss of cultural heritage and identity.

>Intersectional Discrimination:

Race, Ethnicity, and Language: Discrimination based on language intersects with other forms of
discrimination such as race and ethnicity. Individuals from racial or ethnic minority backgrounds may
experience compounded marginalization due to linguistic discrimination.
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Gender and Language: Gendered expectations and stereotypes can also influence language use and
perceptions. Women, for example, may face specific linguistic biases or constraints in both formal and
informal contexts.

Addressing language-based discrimination requires comprehensive strategies that recognize the

intersectional nature of inequalities and promote linguistic diversity, inclusion, and respect for cultural
identities. Legal protections, educational reforms, language policies that support bilingualism, and
community-based initiatives are essential to challenging discriminatory practices and promoting social
justice within diverse societies.

1.3 Nature of Multilingualism: Differential status of Indian classroom language

Multilingualism refers to the ability of an individual, community, or society to use and understand multiple
languages proficiently. It is characterized by the coexistence and active use of two or more languages
within a given context. Here are key aspects of multilingualism:

An individual who speaks two languages is bilingual, while someone who speaks three or more languages
is considered multilingual. Multilingual individuals may vary in their proficiency across different
languages. They may use different languages for different purposes, such as work, home, social
interactions, or formal settings.

Societies characterized by multilingualism often have linguistic diversity, where multiple languages
coexist and are used in various domains such as education, government, media, and everyday
communication. Multilingual societies involve language contact situations, where languages interact and
influence each other through the borrowing of words, code-switching (alternating between languages in
conversation), and language mixing.

Multilingual individuals often demonstrate enhanced cognitive abilities such as problem-solving skills,
multitasking, and cognitive flexibility. Multilingualism facilitates communication and interaction across
linguistic and cultural boundaries, fostering understanding and appreciation of diverse perspectives and
cultures. Proficiency in multiple languages can enhance career opportunities in globalized industries,
international relations, tourism, and translation/interpretation services.

In multilingual societies, there may be challenges in maintaining minority languages against dominant
languages, leading to language shift or endangerment.
Ensuring equitable access to quality education in multiple languages can be challenging, particularly in
terms of curriculum development, teacher training, and language policies. Balancing linguistic diversity
with social cohesion and national unity requires inclusive language policies that promote multilingualism
while addressing potential tensions or inequalities.

In summary, multilingualism encompasses the use of multiple languages by individuals and within
societies, offering cognitive, social, cultural, and economic benefits while presenting challenges related to
language maintenance, education, and social cohesion. Embracing and supporting multilingualism can
enrich societies and contribute to global interconnectedness and understanding.
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In the Indian context, the nature of multilingualism in language classrooms is influenced by the differential
status of Indian languages. India is a linguistically diverse country with hundreds of languages spoken
across its various regions. While the Indian constitution recognizes few officially recognized languages,
there are several other regional and minority languages spoken by different communities.

Differential Status of Indian Language Classroom.

1. Official Language Policy: The Indian government has adopted a three-language formula that
encourages the study of three languages in schools. Typically, schools teach the regional language,
Hindi (as a national language), and English. However, the implementation of this policy varies
across states and educational institutions. The status and emphasis given to each language in the
classroom may differ depending on the linguistic and cultural context of the region.]
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2. Dominance of English: English holds a prestigious status in the Indian education system and
society at large. It is often seen as the language of opportunity, social mobility, and global
communication. English-medium schools are considered prestigious, and proficiency in English is
often associated with better educational and employment prospects. Consequently, English tends to
receive more focus and resources in language classrooms, sometimes at the expense of regional
languages.
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3. Regional Language Emphasis: In many regions of India, there is a strong emphasis on teaching
and promoting the regional language. State governments may prioritize the regional language by
using it as the medium of instruction in schools and providing resources for its teaching. Regional
language education aims to preserve cultural heritage, foster regional identity, and ensure access to
education for students who may not have a strong command of English.

4. Disparities in Language Resources: Disparities in language resources and support can exist
across Indian languages in the classroom. English and certain major regional languages may have
more textbooks, learning materials, and qualified teachers available, while minority languages or
languages spoken by marginalized communities may face a lack of resources. This differential
status can impact the quality of language instruction and opportunities for language learning.

5. Bilingual and Multilingual Instruction: In many Indian classrooms, bilingual or multilingual

instruction is common. Teachers may use a combination of English, Hindi, and the regional
language to deliver instruction. Code-switching and code-mixing between languages may also
occur, depending on the language proficiency of students and the teacher’s language policy. This
dynamic language use reflects the multilingual nature of Indian society.

6. Language Attitudes and Perceptions: Students and parents may have varying attitudes and
perceptions towards different languages in the classroom. English is often associated with social
prestige, while regional languages may face stigmatization or be viewed as less valuable in terms
of career prospects. These language attitudes can influence language choices, language learning
motivation, and the overall language dynamics within the classroom.

7. Cultural and Linguistic Diversity: The Indian language classroom reflects the rich cultural and
linguistic diversity of the country. Students from different linguistic backgrounds come together,
bringing their unique languages, dialects, and cultural perspectives. This diversity can create
opportunities for language and cultural exchange, fostering intercultural understanding and
appreciation.

It is important to promote equitable language education policies and practices that value and support
all Indian languages in the classroom. Recognizing the importance of multilingualism and providing
resources for the teaching and learning of regional languages can contribute to preserving linguistic
diversity, promoting inclusive education, and empowering students to navigate the multilingual
landscape of India.

1.4 Home Language and School Language: Deficit Theory and Discontinuity Theory
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Deficit theory

The "deficit theory" of education posits that students who differ from the norm in a significant way
should be considered deficient and that the educational process must correct these deficiencies.

Eller, Rebecca G in "Johnny Can't Talk, Either: The Perpetuation of the Deficit Theory in
Classrooms", Reading Teacher, page 670-74 May 1989, Analyzes the "deficit theory," which suggests that
children from lower socioeconomic environments enter school without the linguistic resources needed for
success. Suggests that teachers avoid labeling children as verbally inept when their language does not conform
to the teacher's linguistic model.
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The automatic assumption that some students are more prone to academic success than others is known as the
'deficit theory'. Some teachers have in mind a picture of the perfect student. When students who do not fit that
picture enter the classroom, these teachers might have lower expectations of that student's ability to achieve.
The deficit theory is not just a teacher's problem; it is a that we all have to deal with. To some extent, we all
make hasty first impressions.

The deficit theory is a danger in education because teacher expectations can have a large influence on how a
student performs. If a teacher believes that only students of higher socioeconomic status families can succeed
in advanced classes, then that teacher will likely teach in a way that only those students will succeed. For
example, a teacher might inadvertently give more attention, effective instruction, and better grades to the
students who are expected to perform well. Conversely, if teachers expect a student to do poorly, they'll
probably deliver instruction of lower quality in response to the lowered expectation.

Other than poor student performance, the deficit theory also encourages student delinquency. Students can tell
when teachers have a low level of expectation. They also know when they are seen as 'remedial' by their
teachers. When teachers hold deficit theory attitudes and judgments, they believe it is impossible for students
to improve. A feeling of helplessness settles in. That feeling in turn leads students to become apathetic towards
their own learning. Eventually, they lose interest in school and end up causing problems in the classroom or
dropping out entirely.

According to Otto, numerous researchers have studied language differences between economically privileged
children and children who live in poverty. These researchers have described differences in terms of dialect,
ways in which children use language to describe aspects of their lives, and communicative patterns in the
families of these children. The researchers noted that children from economically deprived communities did
not succeed in school as well as the children from middle- and upper-class environments.

The idea of deficit suggests that there is something wrong with a child who differs from those who naturally
succeed in school and places the focus on remediating problems rather than appreciating the strengths all
children bring to the classroom upon which a teacher can build to extend knowledge. Lisa Delpit, in an
interview with Dana Goldstein, describes watching a researcher in a classroom who was coming to the same
deficit theory conclusion middle- and upper-class children compared to economically deprived children.
Delpit intervened with the researcher by making a list of the words the economically deprived children knew
that the researcher was not aware of, the point being that the way in which research is conducted can limit
conclusions. If researchers do not know all about the language children know, how can they determine if a
child has a deficit? Delpit suggests that teachers recognize that children who grow up in poverty have a culture
that is not well-aligned with the ways schools create knowledge. If teachers make an effort to bridge this gap,
rather than focusing on a student-blaming deficit model, then all students can succeed in school.

Gist - According to the deficit theory of education, students who are different from the
acceptable norm are to be considered deficient. To rectify this situation, the educational process
must attempt to correct these deficiencies.
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The deficit theory suggests that:

• A child who differs from those who usually succeed has some deficiency.
• There should be an effort to find remedies for such problems and not concentrate only on
those who bring their strengths to the classroom.

The deficit theory of language learning, also known as the deficit model or deficit perspective, is a framework
that views language differences or variations as deficiencies or deficits compared to a perceived norm or
standard. This theory suggests that individuals who do not conform to the dominant language norms or
standards are deficient in their language abilities, often attributing these differences to internal or inherent
shortcomings rather than considering broader contextual factors.

Key aspects of the deficit theory of language learning include:

1. Language Deficiency: The theory posits that individuals who speak non-standard varieties of a language or
who exhibit language differences (e.g., dialects, accents) are viewed as lacking proficiency or competence in
the dominant language standard. This perspective often stigmatizes linguistic diversity as inferior or
inadequate.

2. Cultural Bias: The deficit theory may reflect cultural biases and prejudices regarding language and
communication. It may prioritize and uphold the language norms and practices of dominant social groups
while marginalizing or devaluing the linguistic and cultural practices of minority or non-dominant groups.

3. Educational Implications: In educational settings, the deficit theory can lead to discriminatory practices and
policies. For example, students who speak non-standard dialects or languages may be placed in remedial or
special education programs based on perceived language deficiencies, rather than receiving support that
acknowledges and builds upon their existing linguistic strengths.

4. Psychological Impact: The deficit theory can have negative psychological effects on individuals and
communities, contributing to feelings of shame, low self-esteem, and cultural identity conflict. It may
perpetuate stereotypes and societal prejudices that undermine individuals' sense of belonging and acceptance.

5. Criticism and Rejection: Critics of the deficit theory argue that it overlooks the value of linguistic diversity
and fails to recognize the socio-cultural richness that different language varieties contribute to society. They
advocate for a strengths-based approach that acknowledges and celebrates linguistic diversity, promotes
inclusive education practices, and respects the cultural identities of all learners.

In summary, the deficit theory of language learning represents a perspective that views language differences
through a deficit lens, attributing these differences to inherent deficiencies rather than considering socio-
cultural, historical, or environmental factors that influence language use and development. Moving away from
deficit thinking is important for promoting equitable educational opportunities, fostering cultural inclusivity,
and supporting the linguistic rights and identities of diverse communities.
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Discontinuity theory

Continuity theory: According to this theory, development is a continuous process, and it happens
gradually and not in one day. The proponents of this theory believe that the evolution of language must
have happened in a gradual manner. Different features of language may have developed in different
stages starting from the earliest humans, and with time may have developed into the patterns we see
today.
Discontinuity theory: Theorists of this category believe that language is a unique phenomenon and must
have appeared suddenly during the process of human evolution. Noam Chomsky (1960s) is the most
prominent advocate of this theory. He believed that there might have been a single mutation around
100,000 years ago, and an individual might have been imbued with ‘near perfect’ language faculty.
Further development might then have continued.
Theories about the origin of language can be divided according to their basic assumptions. Some theories are
based on the idea that language is so complex that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its
final form, but that it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among our pre-human ancestors.
These theories can be called continuity-based theories. The opposite viewpoint is that language is such a
unique human trait that it cannot be compared to anything found among non-humans and that it must therefore
have appeared fairly suddenly in the transition from pre-hominids to early man. These theories can be defined
as discontinuity-based.
Continuity theories of language evolution hold that it must have developed gradually, starting among the
earliest ancestors of humans, with different features developing at different stages until people’s speech
resembled what we have today. Meanwhile, the Discontinuity Theory suggests that because there is nothing
even remotely similar to compare human language to, it is likely to have appeared suddenly within mankind’s
history. This may have been a result of a genetic mutation within one individual, which was passed on through
their ancestors and eventually became a dominant ability.
The first Continuity Theory is based on the conviction that there is no fundamental difference between human
communication and the communication of animals. Both transmit messages to other members of their species
which can be understood by the receiver of the message. The need for communication and the use of sounds,
noises, and signs is equally important for humans and animals. Although there is a discrepancy in the number
of possible messages and although the sounds, noises, and signs sound or look different, they are all forms of
a developed language or forms of language in the constantly developing line of evolution. "Theorists of this
persuasion might picture the development of communication systems as a straight road towards language."
There is a difference, however, in the form of intelligence of humans and animals. The human intelligence can
be called specific as humans can increase the quantity of their language as well as name abstract things, events,
and situations. Animals lack this sort of intelligence, so their kind of intelligence is called non-specific.
Specific intelligence is a very important and fundamental essence of language.
Discontinuity theory shows human language system is more complex than any other language on Earth. Noam
Chomsky is among the world’s leading linguists and acknowledges that a possible genetic mutation in one of
our human ancestors gave them the ability to speak and understand language, which was passed on to their
offspring. Because of the usefulness of this ability, Darwinist evolution meant that it became a dominant
feature throughout humanity.
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The discontinuity theory of language learning suggests that there are distinct phases or stages in the process
of acquiring language, and these stages are characterized by significant shifts or changes in how language is
learned and processed. This theory contrasts with continuity theories, which propose that language learning
occurs gradually and continuously without clear-cut stages.

Key points of the discontinuity theory of language learning include:

1. Critical Period Hypothesis: This aspect of the discontinuity theory posits that there is a specific window of
time during which language acquisition is optimal. According to this hypothesis, children have a critical period
in early development during which they are particularly adept at acquiring language. If language learning does
not occur within this critical period, it becomes increasingly difficult to achieve native-like proficiency later
in life.

2. Stages of Language Development: The discontinuity theory suggests that language acquisition progresses
through distinct stages or phases. Each stage is characterized by specific linguistic abilities and milestones,
such as phonological development (learning sounds), syntactic development (learning grammar rules), and
semantic development (learning meanings of words and sentences).

3. Cognitive Shifts: The theory proposes that there are cognitive shifts or changes in how language is processed
as individuals progress through different stages of language development. For example, children initially learn
language through imitation and gradually develop more complex language skills through cognitive processes
such as abstraction, hypothesis testing, and rule formation.

4. Universal Grammar: Some versions of the discontinuity theory, particularly those influenced by Noam
Chomsky's work, emphasize the existence of a universal grammar. Universal grammar posits that all human
languages share underlying structural principles and that children are born with innate linguistic knowledge
that guides language acquisition.

5. Implications for Language Education: Understanding the discontinuity theory of language learning has
implications for language education and intervention strategies. Educators may tailor language instruction to
align with developmental stages and capitalize on critical periods for language learning. Early intervention
programs may focus on maximizing language exposure and support during the critical period for optimal
language development.

Critics of the discontinuity theory argue that language learning may not be as neatly divided into distinct stages
as proposed and that the process can be influenced by individual differences, environmental factors, and
varying rates of language development. Nevertheless, the theory has contributed significantly to our
understanding of how humans acquire language and continues to inform research and educational practices in
linguistics and language development.
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C01: LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM

Unit-2: Language at school

2.1 Language is a method of communication consisting of sounds and words, which allows a person to convey
his or her thoughts or to make statements.
English is divided into 2 parts- English as a First Language, English as a Foreign Language, and English as a
Second Language.
Language acquisition is the process by which people learn to comprehend and use language. To comprehend
and clarify how the process starts and develops, many language acquisition theories have been developed in
the English language.

L1 acquisition

The language learned after birth via communication with the environment is referred to as native or first
language.
Children learn this language right from birth till they are 7 or 8 years old.
They begin at infancy, where they continually learn this language from their parents & family and speak
eloquently without thinking much about the grammar.
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Stages of L1 learning

1. Pre-Language Stage: Cooing and babbling are the two stages that make up this stage. In contrast to
babbling, which includes syllable-like sounds like mamama/dadada as well as a yes/no response by
nodding to a question or pointing to the things they want, cooing is a single syllable or vowel-like
sound that infants make.

2. One-word/Holophrastic Stage (9-18 months): The child can respond at this stage with a single word.
They can express their needs or wants by using single-word utterances. cat, milk, dog, etc

3. Two-word Stage (18-24 months): In this stage, phrases that use multiple words are more complex. The
child can identify objects and personal possessions by describing them with two words that stand for
possession, request, or statement. such as a baby chair or dog bed.
4. Telegraphic Stage (24-30 months): The child can now construct complete sentences thanks to their
rapidly expanding vocabulary. The child shows analytical skills by being able to connect the object to
its function.
5. Later Multiword Stage (30+ months): The child can understand and use the grammatical context of the
language development.

L2 acquisition

Second Language refers to the non-native language that is learned after the mother tongue. Learns the
grammatical structures & several other concepts, & when he or she speaks the second language later in life.
More conscious of the language’s grammatical rules.
Second Language Acquisition Theories, as proposed by linguist Stephen Krashen in 1981, identify five
different phases of second language learning, according to Annie Oliveri and Judie Haynes.
 20

Stages of L2 acquisition:

1. Pre-production Stage: More understanding of the language than its application, hence it is also called the
silent stage.

2. Early Production Stage: The learner responds with one or two-word answers or short words like yes, no and
names.

3. Speech Emergence Stage: The learners can put the words into short phrases, sentences, and questions. They
gain greater comprehension and can read and write in the second language.

4. Beginning fluency: The learners can converse in social contexts and situations but still struggle to
communicate due to gaps in vocabulary and phrases.

4. Intermediate fluency: Acquire the ability to communicate in written as well as verbally. The learners start
thinking in the second language.

5. Advanced fluency stage: It takes up to two years to reach this stage and then after ten years to acquire full
proficiency in the second language including all the complexities of gaining a good command over the second
language.
 21

Home language and school language

Language is primarily a means of communication. The signals used to transmit telegraphic messages etc., are
all communication systems and they are interpreted in language. Human beings use language to communicate
ideas, transmit messages, and express emotions, desires, and feelings. It is intimately related to human beings
since it is the universal and exclusive characteristic of man alone. It is the product of the human mind and the
vocal apparatus which the human being possesses.

It is the instrument that gives order and organization to thinking. In countries where only one language is
spoken, there is no problem for the child, because he has to develop proficiency only in one language. But, in
a country like India where there is a multiplicity of languages, there is the problem of intercommunication.
This is the reason why in India normally a child knows two or three languages, from here, it’s coming home
and school language. Home language is the language spoken in the home.

School language is the language spoken in the school. A child who starts school knows only a home language
different from the school language. Academic performance depends not only on a student’s ability to learn the
material, but on their ability to understand spoken and written language their ability to convey their knowledge
both verbally and written, as well as their literacy skills such as reading, writing, and spelling. Kids start
developing the precursor skills needed to read, write, and spell. If those skills are later developed or do not
develop, students’ performance will suffer Academic language is defined in general as the language that is
used in schools that helps students acquire many systematic forms of rule on context to use in a formative
 22

knowledge. The school language findings indicate that students in urban secondary schools performed better
than students at rural schools because of the sharing of resources and materials available.

Home language (HL)and school language (SL) refer to the distinct ways one communicates or uses language
differently. However, HL is more informal and relaxed than SL because, in the home environment, most
people use colloquialisms, regional dialects, or slang even that may incorporate local or regional vocabulary
and expressions. Whereas SL emphasizes proper grammar and standardized vocabulary, for communication
and should be the professional appropriate language for educational settings. Home language is deeply
embedded in cultural contexts, but school language may incorporate culture to prioritize a more on broader
academic and professional standards. First language acquisition is not dependent on intelligence or special
ability for languages. Everyone acquires their native language fully and properly. What is true is that some
people have a greater stylistic range and larger vocabulary in their native language but that is not connected
with first language acquisition. You learn style in school when you learn how to write the standard of your
language, and you learn specialized words consciously after childhood.
 23

2.2 The concept of register and style, concept formation, theories of language development
Register
We speak or write differently depending on the context, audience, and goal of the text. Our language and style
have changed in the register. Depending on who they are speaking to and the context, people use language in
various registers. A register is frequently discussed in terms of formality.
For instance, in formal situations (like a job interview) as opposed to informal ones (like hanging out with
friends), our word choices, voice tones, and body language are likely to change.
The general language used by groups of people who share a common interest can also be described by the
term register, although it is most frequently used to describe formality. One example of this is when two
lawyers speak in the "jargon" of their profession.
 24

The context (where), occasion (why), and audience (who) are just a few examples of the various social factors
that influence the register we (consciously or unconsciously) use when communicating.
According to linguists Halliday & Hasan (1976), register adds a layer of meaning that can help define discourse
(whether it be spoken or written). To respond appropriately, it's critical to understand the register in both
written and spoken language. As it enables us to comprehend how language is used in various social contexts
and how it is influenced by social and cultural factors, the study of register and style is crucial in
sociolinguistics.
Sociolinguists can learn more about the connection between language and society, including how language is
used to communicate power, identity, and meaning, by analyzing register and style.
Let's look at some of the most common types of registers and when we might use them now that we have a
basic understanding of what register means. The main categories of various linguistic registers are listed below.
They are: intimate, frozen, formal, consultative, and frozen.
1. Frozen register:
The static register, also known as the frozen register, is used for very old pieces of speech, such as
readings from the bible, Shakespearean plays, and wedding vows. The reason the language hasn't
changed in a while and will keep doing so even though it isn't used anymore is that it is known as the
frozen register.
The formal register, which is used in formal contexts, is frequently linked to standardized versions of
English.

2. Formal register: When speaking to those in positions of authority and deserving of respect, such as
school administrators, police officers, and members of the service industry, a formal register is typically
used. For example, in essays, formal speeches, or letters of complaint, you would write in a formal
register.

3. Consultative register: The consultative register is typically used when two people are conversing in an
expert-novice relationship, i.e., when one person is knowledgeable about a particular subject and the
other is not.
Since advice is being requested and given formally, the consultative register includes a respectful tenor.
However, depending on the relationship between the two people, the consultative register can also be
informal and contain things like slang. Between a doctor and a patient, a teacher and a student, and a
boss and an employee are a few situations where the consultative register may be used.

4. Casual register: The casual register typically refers to conversational speech between close friends.
Slang, contractions, swear words, and dialectal elements are frequently found in the casual register.
Everyday language typically uses the informal register.

5. Intimate register: The informal language used when speaking to close friends, family members, or
romantic partners is referred to as the intimate register. The intimate register is frequently used in
private and can be used for flirting, telling inside jokes, talking about personal matters, and sharing
secrets.
 25

Style:
Style refers to how a text is written to serve a particular purpose and is more commonly used in written text.
The vocabulary, tone, grammar, sentence structure, and layout used in a text will all vary depending on its
intended audience.
For instance, the writing style would probably be persuasive if the goal of the text was to persuade the reader
to purchase a new product.
The writer should select the register that best fits the writing style.
For instance, a persuasive text may use a casual register to engender familiarity and friendship with the reader
and thereby build trust.

There are four main types of writing: descriptive, expository, persuasive, and narrative.
1. Narrative writing style: The purpose of narrative writing is to tell a story. It's most frequently connected
to non-fictional writing, like speeches and autobiographies, as well as fictional writing, like novels and
screenplays. In narrative writing, we can use any register, and the choice of register depends on the
context of the story.
2. Persuasive writing style: Writing persuasively is a strategy for persuading readers to agree with your
viewpoints or to alter their behaviour in some way. Ads, cover letters, and persuasive essays are a few
examples of persuasive writing. While advertisements might use a more casual register to establish a
sense of friendship with the reader, essays would use a formal register.

3. Descriptive writing style: For the reader, descriptive writing attempts to "paint a picture." It aims to
amuse and frequently uses decorative and figurative language, like metaphors. Poetry, song lyrics, and
short stories are a few examples. Again, the register will be determined by the text's context.

4. Expository writing style: The goal of expository writing is to clarify a topic for the reader. In addition
to being concise, this writing style must be clear, supported by data or statistics, and free of superfluous
jargon. 'How to' articles, textbooks, FAQ pages, and business writing are a few examples of expository
writing. A consultative register would typically be used in expository writing.

5. Analytical writing style: Examines a topic or text in detail, breaking it down into its component parts
and analyzing its meaning, significance, and implications.
Conclusion
Style describes how a text is written to achieve its intended purpose (to describe a situation, persuade a reader,
or explain something).

The language that must fit the writing style is known as the register. For instance, you should use a formal
register if you are writing a cover letter. You would most likely use a casual or intimate register if you were
writing an Instagram caption.
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Theories of language development

1. Behavioural theory (BF Skinner theory of language acquisition)

The Behaviourism theory of first language acquisition was put forth by J.B. Watson (1878–1957) in 1913. The
early 20th century saw the development of behaviourist language teaching, which saw language as a behaviour.
Some behaviourists embrace and concur with this idea, including Skinner, Pavlov, and Thorndike.
To reinforce effective language teaching and learning, they taught that language can be taught as a pattern
practice behaviour, habitual activity, and use of reward and punishment.
As a result of stimulus-response interactions, language learning takes place.

Imitation, repetition, memorization, rewards, and reinforcement all help children learn new languages.
As a result, stimulus-response psychology is a clear application of behaviourist theory. Through a process of
trial and error, he gradually learns to make increasingly finer distinctions. In this process, acceptable utterances
are encouraged by understanding and approval, while unacceptable utterances are inhibited by the lack of
reward.
According to behaviourists, learning is influenced by the environment in which it takes place, and as long as
people are exposed to the same circumstances, they will learn in the same way.
The result of a stimulus-response cycle is language.
The child learns spoken language through imitating, rewarding, and practicing other people as spoken
language role models.
Thus, picking up a language is a mechanical process of developing habits.
 27

The behaviourist perspective holds that infants pick up spoken language from other human role models through
imitation, rewards, and practice. Children who make an effort to communicate or mimic sounds or speech
patterns are frequently praised and given rewards.

Core Concepts of Behaviourist Theory

1. Imitation:
While imitation is a key component of language learning in the behaviourist framework, it oversimplifies the
process. Children don't merely copy what they hear; they often produce novel utterances that they haven't
heard before. For instance, children can create sentences they’ve never encountered and demonstrate that
they’re not just mimicking but also applying underlying rules.
This limitation challenges the idea that imitation alone is sufficient for mastering complex language structures.
It suggests a need for incorporating theories that account for creative language use.

2. Reinforcement:
Behaviourism assumes that language acquisition is primarily driven by reinforcement. However, this view
overlooks how intrinsic cognitive processes, and social interactions play a role in language development. For
example, children’s ability to generalize grammatical rules (e.g., forming plurals or past tense) isn't solely a
result of external reinforcement but involves internal cognitive mechanisms.
Overemphasis on reinforcement may undermine the importance of cognitive and interactive aspects of
language learning. It suggests that educational practices relying heavily on reward-based systems might miss
out on fostering deeper understanding and self-regulated learning.

3. Conditioning:
The behaviourist focus on conditioning as a mechanism for language learning fails to account for the
complexity of human language. Language acquisition involves abstract thinking and the application of
complex rules, which are not easily explained by simple conditioning. For instance, the ability to understand
and use syntax and morphology involves more than just conditioned responses; it requires cognitive
processing.
Relying predominantly on conditioning might limit the scope of language teaching methods, neglecting the
cognitive and social dimensions essential for comprehensive language development.

Implications for Language Learning

1. Emphasis on Practice and Repetition:

While practice and repetition are important, they can lead to rote learning rather than deep comprehension.
Language learners might memorize phrases without understanding the underlying grammatical rules or
 28

meanings. This can result in a superficial grasp of language that might not translate well to novel or complex
language use.
Educational strategies should balance repetitive practice with activities that promote understanding of
linguistic concepts and encourage learners to apply language creatively and critically.

2. Role of Feedback:
Behaviourism places a strong emphasis on immediate feedback, but this approach can be problematic. Over-
reliance on corrective feedback may create anxiety or hinder learners' willingness to experiment with language.
Additionally, it may not address the underlying cognitive processes or encourage learners to develop self-
correction skills.
Feedback should be constructive and supportive, promoting an environment where learners feel comfortable
making mistakes and learning from them. It should also include opportunities for learners to engage in self-
assessment and reflection.

3. Structured Learning Environments:

The structured approach recommended by behaviourism can sometimes be rigid and fails to accommodate
individual differences in learning styles and paces. Such environments may not always foster the flexibility
needed for learners to adapt and use language in diverse real-world contexts.
Language teaching should incorporate flexibility, allowing for personalized learning experiences and
opportunities for learners to engage with language in varied and dynamic contexts.

Conclusion
Behaviourist theory has contributed valuable insights into the mechanics of language learning, particularly the
roles of imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning. However, it is essential to critically evaluate its limitations
and integrate aspects of cognitive and interactionist theories to develop a more holistic understanding of
language acquisition. Modern language teaching practices should consider these critiques to create more
effective and nuanced educational approaches that address both the cognitive and social dimensions of
language learning.

2. Mentalist theory
In 1965, Chomsky published a book titled "Aspects of the Theory of Syntax" that contained the theory of
innate properties of language. Chomsky claimed that despite the fact that the rules of native languages are
abstract, children are able to quickly master them.
According to Chomsky, no one ever learns a language through conditioning; rather, language acquisition
occurs innately as and when a child reaches adulthood.
Chomsky and his followers thus firmly established that language acquisition is an innate process, not a
behaviour, but a mental process, in opposition to the Behaviourist theories.
 29

It is acquired through application and a child's innate syntactic skills.

Chomsky coined the term "Language Acquisition Device" (LAD) to describe this innate knowledge in his
article titled "Linguistic Theory."
Every typical human being is born into a society with a LAD that represents the human language and structure,
according to Chomsky. The LAD determines a child's language development; environmental factors have no
bearing on or significance.

The mentalist theory of language acquisition, primarily associated with Noam Chomsky, argues that humans
are biologically predisposed to acquire language. This theory contrasts with behaviorist approaches by
emphasizing innate cognitive structures and processes rather than external reinforcement. Here’s a critical
overview of the core concepts and implications of the mentalist theory:

Core Concepts of Mentalist Theory

1. Universal Grammar (UG):
Chomsky proposed that all human languages share a common underlying structure known as Universal
Grammar. This innate grammatical framework is hardwired into the brain, allowing children to easily learn
any language to which they are exposed.
Educators should consider that learners might benefit from understanding the underlying structures of
language rather than focusing solely on memorizing vocabulary and rules. Awareness of universal principles
can guide the development of teaching methods that cater to the innate linguistic abilities of learners.
 30

2. Language Acquisition Device (LAD):

According to Chomsky, children are born with a Language Acquisition Device, a hypothetical cognitive
module that facilitates the learning of language. The LAD enables children to rapidly and effortlessly acquire
the syntax and rules of their native language.
Language teaching should focus on providing rich and varied linguistic input, supporting the development of
learners' intrinsic language abilities. However, it is also important to integrate social and interactive elements
to enhance the learning experience.

3. Critical Period Hypothesis:

The mentalist theory includes the idea that there is a critical period for language acquisition, typically during
early childhood when the ability to learn a language is at its peak. After this period, acquiring a new language
becomes significantly more challenging.
Teaching strategies should be adapted to the learner's age and developmental stage. Early exposure to language
is beneficial, but adult learners should also be provided with effective, age-appropriate methods to support
their language learning.
Implications for Language Learning
1. Focus on Innate Abilities:
The mentalist theory suggests that language instruction should tap into the learner’s innate linguistic
capabilities. This might involve methods that emphasize understanding grammatical structures and principles
rather than rote memorization. Teaching should leverage learners' natural ability to grasp language rules.
2. Rich Language Input:
Providing exposure to a rich and varied linguistic environment is crucial. This includes offering diverse
language experiences, contexts, and interactive opportunities to help learners activate and refine their internal
grammatical knowledge.
3. Individual Differences:
While the theory emphasizes innate linguistic capabilities, it is important to recognize that individual
differences in learning styles, experiences, and cognitive processes also play a significant role. Tailoring
instruction to accommodate these differences can enhance learning outcomes.
4. Role of Social Interaction:
Although mentalist theory focuses on innate abilities, integrating social interaction and communicative
practice into language learning is essential. Interaction with native speakers and participation in meaningful
communication can complement innate learning processes and reinforce language acquisition.
5. Application in Educational Contexts:
Educators should design curricula that align with the principles of Universal Grammar and provide
opportunities for learners to explore and understand the underlying structures of language. Educational tools
and strategies should support the development of linguistic competence and confidence in using the language.
 31

Conclusion
The mentalist theory of language acquisition offers valuable insights into the inherent linguistic capabilities
of humans, emphasizing the role of Universal Grammar and innate cognitive structures. However, it is crucial
to address its limitations by integrating insights from other theories and considering the impact of social
interactions, input quality, and individual differences on language learning. This balanced approach can lead
to more effective and nuanced language teaching practices that support learners' innate abilities while also
catering to their diverse needs and contexts.

3. Piaget’s cognitive theory of language learning and acquisition

It emphasizes that language development is deeply intertwined with cognitive development, suggesting that a
child’s ability to acquire language depends on their stage of cognitive growth. According to Piaget, language
is not an independent system but a manifestation of broader cognitive processes that evolve as children interact
with their environment and mature cognitively.

Key Concepts of Piaget’s Cognitive Theory in Language Learning and Acquisition:

1. Language as a Reflection of Cognitive Development: Piaget viewed language as a reflection of a child’s

cognitive capabilities. Language development is dependent on cognitive structures that evolve through
different stages. Thus, a child's language skills mirror their level of cognitive development.

2. Stages of Cognitive Development and Language Acquisition:

- Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): In this stage, infants explore the world through their senses and
motor actions. Language begins with sounds, cries, and gestures. Towards the end of this stage, infants
start using words, which correlate with their understanding of object permanence—knowing that objects
exist even when out of sight, a crucial cognitive milestone.

- Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): During this stage, children start to use symbolic thought, allowing
them to use language to represent objects and actions. However, their thinking is still egocentric and
concrete. They begin to form simple sentences, ask questions, and use language to express their
experiences, although their grasp of complex grammar and abstract language is limited.

- Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): Children’s thinking becomes more logical and organized
in this stage, but still concrete. They can understand and use more complex sentence structures, grasp
cause-and-effect relationships in language, and engage in conversations that involve more structured and
logical sequences.

- Formal Operational Stage (11 years and up): In this stage, abstract thinking emerges, enabling
adolescents to understand metaphor, sarcasm, and hypothetical language. They can engage in complex
reasoning and articulate abstract and hypothetical ideas through language.

3. Active Construction of Language Knowledge: Piaget believed that children actively construct their
understanding of language as they interact with their environment. Language learning is not just about
imitation or innate grammar; it’s about children experimenting, making errors, and adjusting their language
use based on feedback and their growing cognitive abilities.

4. Egocentrism and Language: In the preoperational stage, Piaget highlighted that children’s language is often
egocentric—they talk about their own experiences and may struggle to consider the listener’s perspective. As
 32

cognitive skills develop, children learn to adjust their language use to communicate more effectively with
others.

5. Schema and Language Learning: Piaget introduced the concept of schemas—mental frameworks that help
organize and interpret information. Children use and adapt schemas to learn new words and linguistic
structures. Through processes of assimilation (integrating new information into existing schemas) and
accommodation (modifying schemas to fit new information), language learning is seen as a dynamic and
evolving process.

Implications of Piaget’s Theory for Language Acquisition:

- Language follows cognition: Piaget’s theory implies that linguistic abilities depend on prior cognitive
development. For example, a child cannot use words for concepts they do not understand cognitively.

- Learning through Interaction: Children learn language through interaction with their environment rather than
passive absorption. This interaction involves both the physical environment and social communication with
others.

- Stages of readiness: Children can only grasp certain linguistic concepts when they are cognitively ready. For
instance, understanding the past tense or hypothetical scenarios depends on reaching the formal operational
stage.

4. Lev Vygotsky’s theory

Vygotsky, Piaget's contemporaries, emphasized the value of social interaction in constructivism theory.
Constructivism theory emphasizes social interaction as a key component, according to Piaget's contemporaries
Vygotsky and Vygotsky. He thinks that learning is the internalization of social interaction. According to
Vygotsky, learning occurs in a social setting with a more experienced person. This might be a different student
or a teacher in a mixed-ability collaborative learning group.

He believes that culture has an effect on cognitive development as a result. Additionally, he thinks that a
teacher should encourage discovery learning. This social connection provides opportunities for language
learning, which, according to Vygotsky, is at the core of education.

Vygotsky believed that learning takes place when teachers scaffold instruction to support students as they
move through the zone of proximal development. The emphasis of instruction shifts from teaching
(behaviourism) to learning (constructivism), from the passive transmission of facts and procedures to the active
application of concepts to problems. Inquiry-based learning and active discovery should be used in the
classroom to complete student-centred learning
 33

The role of the constructivist teacher is to support or guide learning rather than direct learning, where the
teacher is the source of information, as a behaviourist teaching model would suggest. Two categories of
mediated relationships between people and their surroundings were identified. 1) Humans use language and
physical cues to translate social interactions into psychological processes between their minds and their
environment.

The second hypothesis was that symbolic mediation would become more significant as one's intellectual
growth increased. The difference between the level of actual development as determined by independently
solving problems and the level of potential development as determined by independently solving problems
while being guided by an adult or working with more experienced peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).
 34

One of the key differences between Vygotsky's and Piaget's opposing theories of cognitive development (ZDP)
is the zone of proximal development. The ZPD measures the gap between an individual's actual competence
(the degree to which a student can solve problems on their own) and their individual prospective growth level
(the level at which the student could solve the problems under the assumption that they would receive teacher
guidance). According to Vygotsky, if a student receives the right support as they approach the zone of proximal
development for a particular task, they will be sufficiently motivated to finish it. While guiding a learner
through the zone of proximal development, it is important to keep in mind three key elements, which are

Having someone who knows something the learner does

ZPD not (a more knowledgeable tutor).

With the help of a skilled tutor, learners can enhance their

skills while interacting socially.

Providing scaffolding or supportive activities, either on

behalf of the educator or by a more knowledgeable peer,
to assist students as they progress through the ZPD.

Vygotsky's theory of language learning and acquisition is rooted in his broader concept of the Social
Development Theory, which emphasizes the fundamental role of social interaction in cognitive development.
Here's an overview of the key concepts of his theory related to language learning:

Key Concepts

1. Social Interaction: Vygotsky argued that social interaction plays a crucial role in the development of
cognition. He believed that language acquisition is deeply embedded in social contexts and occurs through
interaction with more knowledgeable others, such as parents, teachers, or peers.

2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): This concept refers to the difference between what a learner can do
independently and what they can do with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. Language
learning occurs most effectively within this zone, where social interaction provides the necessary support for
the learner to progress.

3. Scaffolding: Related to ZPD, scaffolding is the support given during the learning process, tailored to the
needs of the learner, to help them achieve a higher level of understanding. As the learner becomes more
competent, the support is gradually withdrawn.
 35

4. Private Speech: Vygotsky observed that children often talk to themselves as a way to guide their actions
and thought processes. This private speech is a critical step in the development of self-regulation and internal
thought, which eventually leads to inner speech.

5. Mediation: Vygotsky proposed that language is a cultural tool that mediates cognitive development.
Through dialogue, children learn the rules, concepts, and structures of their culture, which shapes their thinking
and language use.

Implications for Language Learning

- Collaborative Learning: Vygotsky’s theory suggests that learning should be a collaborative process. Pairing
learners with more knowledgeable individuals can facilitate language acquisition.

- Role of Culture and Society: Language is not just a means of communication but also a tool shaped by
culture. Children learn language through cultural context, which influences the way they think and understand
the world.

Vygotsky’s theory highlights that language learning is not just a mechanical process of memorizing words and
rules but a deeply social and interactive process that is influenced by culture and context.

2.3 Language as a medium, conflicts between home language and medium of language

The conflicts between home language and the medium of instruction, considering their multifaceted impacts
on students, families, and the educational system:

1. Academic Performance
- Language Barrier in Comprehension:
When students are instructed in a language different from their home language, they might struggle with
understanding complex concepts, instructions, and academic content. This struggle can lead to reduced
academic performance and lower achievement levels. For example, a student might understand the
foundational concepts of math or science in their home language but find it difficult to grasp advanced
terminology or explanations provided in a second language.

- Impact on Cognitive Development:

The cognitive demands of switching between languages can affect a student’s cognitive development.
Constant translation and mental juggling between languages can be taxing, potentially hindering deep learning
and critical thinking skills. Cognitive load theory suggests that excessive cognitive effort in managing multiple
languages might detract from the mental resources available for learning new information.
 36

2. Emotional and Social Impact

- Cultural Disconnection:
Students who primarily speak a different language at home might feel a disconnect between their cultural
identity and the school environment. This disconnection can lead to feelings of alienation or inferiority if their
home language and culture are not represented or valued within the educational setting. This cultural gap can
affect self-esteem and a student’s overall sense of belonging.
- Social Integration Challenges:
Language barriers can also impact social integration. Students might find it difficult to communicate
effectively with peers, leading to social isolation or difficulties in forming friendships. This can affect their
overall social development and sense of inclusion in the school community.

3. Parental Involvement
- Engagement Difficulties:
Parents who are not proficient in the language of instruction may face significant challenges in engaging with
their child’s education. They might struggle to understand school communications, participate in parent-
teacher meetings, or help with homework. This lack of engagement can create a gap in support at home, which
is critical for student success.
- Barrier to Advocacy:
Limited language proficiency can also impede parents' ability to advocate effectively for their child’s needs
within the educational system. They may face difficulties in addressing academic or behavioral issues or in
navigating the complexities of the school system.

4. Teacher Preparedness
- Training and Resources:
Teachers might not always receive adequate training to address the needs of students from diverse linguistic
backgrounds. Without proper training in bilingual education or cultural competence, teachers may struggle to
implement effective instructional strategies or to provide appropriate support to non-native speakers.
- Curriculum and Assessment Challenges:
The curriculum and assessment methods may not be designed to accommodate linguistic diversity, which can
disadvantage students who are not fully proficient in the medium of instruction. Standardized tests and
assessments might not accurately reflect the abilities of students who are still acquiring language skills, leading
to unfair evaluations of their academic performance.

5. Systemic and Policy Issues

- Educational Inequality:
 37

The conflict between the home language and the medium of instruction can exacerbate educational
inequalities. Schools that do not provide sufficient support for linguistic diversity may perpetuate disparities
in educational outcomes. Students from minority language backgrounds might face systemic barriers that limit
their access to quality education and resources.
-Policy Gaps:
Educational policies might not always adequately address the needs of students with limited proficiency in
the medium of instruction. There may be a lack of policies that promote bilingual education or support for
non-native speakers, leading to gaps in resources and support services.

Strategies for Mitigation

1. Implement Bilingual and Multilingual Programs:
- Schools can adopt bilingual or multilingual education programs to support students in learning both their
home language and the medium of instruction. These programs can help bridge the gap and ensure that students
maintain proficiency in their home language while succeeding academically in the medium of instruction.

2. Enhance Teacher Training:

- Providing teachers with professional development in cultural competence and bilingual education strategies
can improve their ability to support diverse learners effectively.

3. Strengthen Parental Support:

- Schools can offer translation services, bilingual communication materials, and family engagement
programs to help parents support their children’s education more effectively.

4. Develop Inclusive Curriculum:

- Creating curricula that reflect and respect cultural and linguistic diversity can enhance students’
engagement and sense of belonging. This approach helps students connect their learning to their cultural
backgrounds.

5. Address Policy Gaps:

- Advocating for and developing policies that support linguistic diversity and equitable educational practices
can help address systemic issues and promote a more inclusive education system.

By addressing these conflicts critically and implementing supportive measures, educational systems can better
accommodate linguistic diversity, thereby enhancing the overall educational experience and outcomes for all
students.
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2.4 Language learning approaches: Philosophical, psychological and sociological approach

Philosophical Approach

The philosophical approach to language learning delves into fundamental questions about language,
knowledge, and learning itself. Key aspects include:

1. Epistemology: Examining how language acquisition relates to knowledge and understanding. Philosophers
might explore whether language shapes thought (linguistic relativity) or how language reflects our perception
of reality.
2. Ethics: Considering the ethical implications of language learning, such as linguistic imperialism (where
dominant languages overshadow minority languages) or issues of cultural appropriation.
3. Critical Theory: Applying critical theory to language learning involves questioning power dynamics,
hegemony in language use, and how language can perpetuate or challenge societal norms and inequalities.
4. Linguistic Relativity: Also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, this theory explores how language
influences thought and perception of reality. It suggests that the structure of a language affects its speakers'
worldview and cognition.
5. Knowledge Acquisition: Philosophers inquire into how language acquisition relates to broader theories of
knowledge. For instance, understanding whether language learning is primarily a process of acquiring symbols
and rules (as in behaviourism) or if it involves innate cognitive structures (as suggested by Chomsky's
Universal Grammar).
6. Personal and Collective Identity: Language learning can be viewed as a process through which individuals
shape and express their identities. Philosophers may explore how language learning contributes to personal
growth and understanding of one's place in the world.
7. Phenomenology of Language: Examining the lived experience of language learning, including the
subjective aspects of language acquisition and how individuals perceive and interpret linguistic phenomena.
8. Power Dynamics: Critical theory investigates how language learning and use can reinforce or challenge
power structures within societies. It explores issues such as linguistic hegemony, language as a tool of
oppression or liberation, and the politics of language education.
9. Language and Social Change: Philosophers may analyze how language learning contributes to social change
and justice, including efforts to promote linguistic diversity, language rights, and inclusive language policies.

Psychological Approach

Psychology offers insights into the cognitive processes involved in language learning and development. Key
aspects include:
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1. Cognitive Approaches: Studying how the brain processes language, including theories like Chomsky's
Universal Grammar or connectionist models that emphasize neural networks and patterns in language
acquisition. Emphasizing neural networks and patterns of activation in the brain as learners acquire
language. Examining how learners encode, store, and retrieve linguistic information. Investigating how
language skills develop over time, from infancy through adulthood, and the role of cognitive milestones
in language acquisition.

2. Psycholinguistics

Language Processing: Studying how individuals comprehend and produce language, including factors such
as syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.

Language Production: Exploring the cognitive processes involved in forming sentences, choosing words,
and organizing discourse.

3. Learning Theories

Behaviourist Approaches: Applying principles of reinforcement and conditioning to language learning,

focusing on observable behaviours such as repetition, practice, and feedback.
Cognitive Approaches: Highlighting mental processes involved in language learning, including attention,
memory, problem-solving, and metacognition.
4. Individual Differences
Learning Styles and Strategies: Investigating how individual differences in cognitive styles, motivation,
and personality traits influence language learning outcomes.
Age and Critical Period Hypothesis: Exploring how age affects language acquisition abilities, with theories
suggesting younger learners may have advantages in language acquisition.
5. Motivation and Affective Factors
Motivation: Studying how learners' goals, attitudes, and intrinsic/extrinsic motivations impact language
learning success and persistence.
Affective Factors: Considering emotions, anxiety, and self-efficacy in language learning, and their
influence on learners' engagement and performance.

Implications and Applications

Educational Psychology: Applying psychological principles to design effective language learning
environments, materials, and teaching strategies that cater to learners' cognitive and affective needs.
Assessment and Intervention: Developing assessments to measure language proficiency and diagnosing
learning difficulties, as well as designing interventions to support learners with diverse psychological
profiles.
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Neurolinguistics: Exploring the neural basis of language processing and its implications for language
learning and teaching.
In summary, the psychological approach to language learning provides valuable insights into the cognitive,
emotional, and behavioural dimensions of how individuals acquire, use, and develop proficiency in
languages. By understanding these psychological processes, educators and researchers can enhance
language learning experiences and outcomes for learners of all ages and backgrounds

Sociological Approach

The sociological approach to language learning examines how language acquisition, use, and education are
shaped by social factors, cultural contexts, and societal structures. Here are key aspects and considerations
within this approach:

1. Language and Identity

Identity Construction: Language plays a crucial role in shaping individual and group identities. Sociologists
analyze how language use reflects and reinforces social identities based on factors such as ethnicity,
nationality, gender, and social class.
Language Maintenance and Shift: Studying why and how languages are maintained or replaced within
communities, considering factors such as globalization, migration, and cultural assimilation.

2. Language Policy and Planning

Language Policies: Examining government policies and institutional practices that influence language
education, usage, and rights. This includes policies regarding official languages, bilingual education, and
minority language protection.
Language Planning: Analyzing efforts to promote or regulate language use in various contexts, such as
education, media, and public administration, to address linguistic diversity and social cohesion.

[Link] Constructivism
Social constructivism suggests that language learning is a socially mediated process where learners actively
construct knowledge through interactions with others. Key aspects include:
Zone of Proximal Development: Borrowing from Vygotsky's theory, which posits that learners acquire
language through collaboration with more knowledgeable others who provide scaffolding.
Cultural Tools: Views language as a cultural tool that mediates learning and facilitates participation in social
practices and communities.
Language as Social Practice: Emphasizes that language learning involves acquiring not just linguistic rules
but also the norms, values, and practices associated with language use in specific social contexts.
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3. Multilingualism and Language Contact

Multilingual Societies: Investigating how multilingualism affects communication, social integration, and
identity formation within diverse societies. This includes studying language contact phenomena like code-
switching and language blending.
Language Hierarchies: Exploring hierarchies among languages within societies, where certain languages may
be privileged over others in domains such as education, employment, and media.

4. Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical discourse analysis examines how language constructs and reinforces power relations, ideologies, and
social identities. Key aspects include:
Language and Ideology: Investigates how language use reflects and perpetuates dominant ideologies and
social norms, shaping individuals' perceptions and beliefs.
Discursive Practices: Analyzes how language is used strategically to maintain or challenge social inequalities
and power dynamics.
Language Policies and Practices: Examines how language policies, media discourse, and educational practices
contribute to shaping societal attitudes and perceptions about languages and language users.

4. Social Interaction and Communication**

Language in Social Contexts: Analyzing how language use varies across different social settings and
relationships, influencing norms of communication and social behaviour.

Language and Power: Investigating how language can be used as a tool of power and domination, reflecting
and perpetuating social inequalities based on linguistic capital.

5. Globalization and Language Chang

Global Language Dynamics: Studying how globalization processes impact language use, transmission, and
diversity worldwide. This includes examining the spread of dominant languages and their implications for
linguistic diversity.
Language Revitalization: Addressing efforts to revive or maintain endangered languages, often as part of
broader movements for cultural preservation and social justice.

Implications and Applications

Educational Equity: Sociological insights inform efforts to create inclusive language education policies and
practices that recognize and support diverse linguistic backgrounds and abilities.
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Social Justice: Highlighting language rights and advocating for linguistic diversity as a form of cultural and
human rights, addressing inequalities in access to language resources and opportunities.
Community Engagement: Collaborating with communities to develop culturally relevant and sustainable
language learning initiatives that respect and preserve linguistic heritage.
Language Policy and Planning: Sociological theories inform language policies that aim to promote linguistic
diversity, equity, and social justice in education and society.
Education and Social Integration: Understanding sociological perspectives on language learning helps
educators create inclusive learning environments that recognize and value diverse linguistic backgrounds and
abilities.
Community Empowerment: Sociological insights support community-based language revitalization efforts
and advocacy for language rights, particularly for marginalized or endangered languages.
In essence, the sociological approach to language learning emphasizes understanding languages as social
phenomena embedded within broader cultural, political, and economic contexts. By examining these
dimensions, educators, policymakers, and researchers can better address the complexities of language
diversity, identity, and social justice in contemporary societies.