Chapter - 01

Introduction to Python

• What is programming
• What is Python
• Popular programming languages
• Why Python
• Career with Python
What is Programming Language?

Programming is the process of creating sets of instructions

that tell a computer how to perform specific tasks. These
instructions, known as code, are written in programming
languages that computer understand and executes to carry
out various operations, such as solving problems, analysing
data, or controlling device. Popular programming languages:
Python, C, C++, Java, Go, C#, etc.

What is Python?

Python is a high-level programming language known for its

simplicity and readability. Just like we use Hindi language to
communicate and express ourselves, Python is a language for
computers to understand our instructions & perform tasks.

Note: Python was created by Guido van Rossum in 1991.

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 Popular programming languages
As per statista survey, Python is the most popular programming language.

Why Python?
Python is one of the easiest programming languages to learn
and known for its versatility and user-friendly syntax, is a top
choice among programmers. Also, python is an open source
(free) programming language and have extensive libraries to
make programming easy. Python has massive use across
different industries with excellent job opportunities.

Python is Dynamically Typed Example

In Python there is no declaration of a variable, just an
assignment statement.
x = 8 # here x is a integer x = "Python by Rishabh Mishra" # here x is a string
print(type(x)) Python - Easy to Read & Write # you can check the type of x

Python - Easy to Read & Write

Ques1: Write a program to print “Hello World”

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 In above examples we can see that Python is simple in writing
& reading the code.

Careers with Python

Python is not only one of the most popular programming
languages in the world, but it also offers great career
opportunities. The demand for Python developers is growing
every year.

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 Chapter - 02

Python Installation & Setup + Visual Studio Code Installation

• Python installation
• Visual Studio Code installation

Install Python
Step 1: Go to website: https://www.python.org/downloads/ Step
2: Click on “Download Python” button (Download the latest
version for Windows or macOS or Linux or other)
Step 3: Run Executable Installer
Step 4: Add Python to Path
Step 5: Verify Python Was Installed on Windows Open the
command prompt and run the following command: python --
version

Install Python IDE (code editor)

Step 1: Go to website: https://code.visualstudio.com/download
Step 2: Click on “Download” button (Download the latest
version for Windows or mac or Linux or other)
Step 3: Run Executable Installer
Step 4: Click “Add to Path”
Step 5: Finish & launch the app Popular Python IDE: VS Code,
PyCharm, Jupyter Notebook & more

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 Chapter - 03

First Python Program

• Print- Hello World!
• Python As a Calculator
• Running the Python code
• Python Execution Steps
• Interpreter v/s Compiler

First Python Program - Hello World

Printing "Hello World" as the first program in Python. print is a
keyword word that has special meaning for Python.
It means, "Display what’s inside the parentheses."
print("Hello World")
Instructor = "Rishabh Mishra"
print("Python by", Instructor, sep="-")

Python As a Calculator
Python can be used as a powerful calculator for performing a
wide range of arithmetic operations.
2+5 # add two numbers
print(10/5) # divide two numbers
# print sum of two numbers
a=2
b=5
print(a+b)

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 Comments: Comments are used to annotate codes, and they
are not interpreted by Python. It starts with the hash character
# Comments are used as notes or short descriptions along
with the code to increase its readability.

Running the Python Code

• Create a new text file and inside it write – print(“Welcome to
the Python Course by Rishabh Mishra”)
• Save file with extension .py – firstcode.py
• Open command prompt on windows (or Terminal on MacOS)
• Enter the location where firstcode.py file is saved – cd
downloads
• Finally run the file as – python firstcode.py

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 Python Code Execution Steps
1. Lexical Analysis: The interpreter breaks down the code into
smaller parts called tokens, identifying words, numbers,
symbols, and punctuation.
2. Syntax Parsing: It checks the structure of the code to ensure it
follows the rules of Python syntax. If there are any errors, like
missing parentheses or incorrect indentation, it stops and
shows a SyntaxError.
3. Bytecode Generation: Once the code is validated, the
interpreter translates it into a simpler set of instructions called
bytecode. This bytecode is easier for the computer to
understand and execute.
4. Execution by PVM: The Python Virtual Machine (PVM) takes
the bytecode and runs it step by step. It follows the instructions
and performs calculations, assigns values to variables, and
executes functions.
5. Error Handling and Output: If there are any errors during
execution, like trying to divide by zero or accessing a variable
that doesn't exist, the interpreter raises an exception. If the
code runs without errors, it displays any output, such as printed
messages or returned values, to the user.

Python Syntax
The syntax of the Python programming language, is the set of
rules that defines how a Python program will be written and
interpreted (by both the runtime system & by human readers).
my_name = "Madhav" (right)
my_name = Madhav (wrong)
# Use quotes "" for strings in Python

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 Interpreter vs Compiler

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 Chapter - 04

Variables in Python
• What is a Variable
• Variables - examples
• Variable Naming Rules

Variables in Python

A variable in Python is a symbolic name that is a reference or

pointer to an object. In simple terms, variables are like
containers that you can fill in with different types of data
values. Once a variable is assigned a value, you can use that
variable in place of the value. We assign value to a variable
using the assignment operator (=). Syntax: variable_name =
value Example: greeting = "Hello World" print(greeting)

Variable Examples

Python can be used as a powerful calculator for performing a

wide range of arithmetic operations.
PythonLevel = "Beginner" # pascal case pythonLevel =
"Beginner" # camel case
pythonlevel = "Beginner" # flat case
python_level = "Beginner" # Snake case
x = 10
print(x+1) # add number to a variable print(x+1)
a, b, c = 1, 2, 3 print(a, b, c) # assign multiple variables

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 Variable Naming Rules
1. Must start with a letter or an underscore ( _ ).
2. Can contain letters, numbers, and underscores.
3. Case-sensitive (my_name and my_Name are different).
4. Cannot be a reserved keyword (like for, if, while, etc.).
_my_name = "Madhav"
for = 26
# ‘for’ is a reserved word in Python

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 Chapter - 05

Data Types in Python

• What are Data types
• Types of data types
• Data types examples

Data Types in Python

In Python, a data type is a classification that specifies the type
of value a variable can hold. We can check data type using
type() function.
Examples:
1. my_name = "Madhav"
>>> type(my_name)
O/P:

2. value = 101
>>> type(value)
O/P:

Basic Data Types in Python

Python can be used as a powerful calculator for performing a
wide range of arithmetic operations.
1. Numeric: Integer, Float, Complex
2. Sequence: String, List, Tuple
3. Dictionary
4. Set
5. Boolean
6. Binary: Bytes, Bytearray, Memoryview

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 Chapter - 06

Type Casting in Python

• What is type casting
• Type Casting examples
• Type Casting - Types

Type Casting
Type casting in Python refers to the process of converting a
value from one data type to another. This can be useful in
various situations, such as when you need to perform
operations between different types or when you need to format
data in a specific way. Also known as data type conversion.
Python has several built-in functions for type casting:
int(): Converts a value to an integer.
float(): Converts a value to a floating-point number.
str(): Converts a value to a string.
list(), tuple(), set(), dict() and bool()

Type Casting Examples

Basic examples of type casting in python:
# Converting String to Integer:
str_num = "26"
int_num = int(str_num)
print(int_num) # Output: 26
print(type(int_num)) # Output:
# Converting Float to Integer:
float_num = 108.56
int_num = int(float_num)

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 print(int_num) # Output: 108
print(type(int_num)) # Output:

Types of Typecasting T
here are two types of type casting in python:
• Implicit type casting
• Explicit type casting

Implicit Type Casting

Also known as coercion, is performed automatically by the
Python interpreter. This usually occurs when performing
operations between different data types, and Python implicitly
converts one data type to another to avoid data loss or errors.
# Implicit type casting from integer to float
num_int = 10
num_float = 5.5
result = num_int + num_float # Integer is automatically
converted to float
print(result) # Output: 15.5
print(type(result)) # Output:

Explicit Type Casting

Also known as type conversion, is performed manually by the
programmer using built-in functions. This is done to ensure the
desired type conversion and to avoid unexpected behavior.
# Converting String to Integer:
str_num = "26"
int_num = int(str_num)
print(int_num) # Output: 26
print(type(int_num)) # Output:
# Converting a value to boolean:
bool(0) # Output: False bool(1) # Output: True
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 Chapter - 07

Input Function in Python

• Input Function – Definition
• Input Function – Example
• Handling Different Data Types

Input Function in Python

The input function is an essential feature in Python that allows
to take input from the user. This is particularly useful when you
want to create interactive programs where the user can
provide data during execution. Also known as user input
function.

How input Function Works:

The input function waits for the user to type something and
then press Enter. It reads the input as a string and returns it.
Example: # Prompting the user for their name name =
input("Enter your name: ") # Displaying the user's input
print("Hello, " + name + "!")

Input Function – Add 2 Numbers

A simple program that takes two numbers as input from the
user and prints their sum.
# Prompting the user for the first and second number
num1 = input("Enter the first number: ")
num2 = input("Enter the second number: ")

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 # Since input() returns a string, we need to convert it to an
integer
num1 = int(num1)
num2 = int(num2)
# Calculating the sum and display the result
sum = num1 + num2
print("The sum of", num1, "and", num2, "is:", sum)

Multiple Input from User & Handling different Data Types

# input from user to add two number and print result
x = input("Enter first number: ")
y = input("Enter second number: ")
# casting input numbers to int, to perform sum
print(f"Sum of {x} & {y} is {int(x) + int(y)}")

Home Work – User input and print result

Write a program to input student name and marks of 3
subjects. Print name and percentage in output.
# Prompting the user for their name and 3 subject marks
name = input("Enter your name: ")
hindi_marks = input("Enter Hindi Marks: ")
maths_marks = input("Enter Maths Marks: ")
science_marks = input("Enter Science Marks: ")
# Calculating percentage for 3 subjects percentage
= ((int(hindi_marks) + int(maths_marks) +
int(science_marks))/300)*100
# Printing the final results
print(f"{name}, have {percentage}%. Well done & keep working
hard!!")

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 Chapter - 08

Operators in Python
• What are Operators
• Types of Operators
• Operators Examples

Operators in Python
Operators in Python are special symbols or keywords used to
perform operations on operands (variables and values).
Operators: These are the special symbols/keywords. Eg: + , * , /,
etc.
Operand: It is the value on which the operator is applied.
# Examples
Addition operator '+': a + b
Equal operator '==': a == b
and operator 'and': a > 10 and b < 20

Types of Operators
Python supports various types of operators, which can be
broadly categorized as:
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Comparison (Relational) Operators
3. Assignment Operators
4. Logical Operators
5. Bitwise Operators
6. Identity Operators
7. Membership Operators

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 Precedence of Arithmetic Operators in Python:
P – Parentheses
E – Exponentiation
M – Multiplication
D – Division
A – Addition
S – Subtraction

2. Comparison (Relational) Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values and
return a Boolean result (True or False).

3. Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

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 4. Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to combine conditional statements.

5. Identity & Membership Operators

Identity operators are used to compare the memory locations
of two objects, not just equal but if they are the same objects.
Membership operators checks whether a given value is a
member of a sequence (such as strings, lists, and tuples) or
not.

6. Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators perform operations on binary numbers.

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 Bitwise Operators Example:

# Compare each bit in these

numbers. 0101 (This is 5 in binary)
0011 (This is 3 in binary) -------
0001 (This is the result of 5 & 3) #
Rules: 0 – False, 1 - True True +
True = True True + False = False
False + False = False

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 Chapter - 09

Conditional Statements in Python

• Conditional Statement definition
• Types of Conditional Statement
• Conditional Statement examples

Conditional Statements in Python

Conditional statements allow you to execute code based on
condition evaluates to True or False. They are essential for
controlling the flow of a program and making decisions based
on different inputs or conditions.
# Examples
a = 26
b = 108
if b > a: print("b is greater than a")
# Indentation - whitespace at the beginning of a line

Types of Conditional Statements

There are 5 types of conditional statements in Python:
1. 'if' Statement
2. 'if-else' statement
3. 'if-elif-else' statement
4. Nested 'if else' statement
5. Conditional Expressions (Ternary Operator)

1. 'if' Conditional Statement

The if statement is used to test a condition and execute a block
of code only if the condition is true.

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 Syntax:
if condition:
# Code to execute if the condition is true

Example:
age = 26
if age > 19:
print("You are an adult")

'if' statement flow diagram:

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 2. 'if-else' Conditional Statement
The if-else statement provides an alternative block of code to
execute if the condition is false.

Syntax:
if condition:
# Code to execute if the condition is true else:
# Code to execute if the condition is false

Example:
temperature = 30
if temperature > 25:
print("It's a hot day.") else:
print("It's a cool day.")

'if-else' statement flow diagram:

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 3. 'if-elif-else' Conditional Statement
The if-elif-else statement allows to check multiple conditions
and execute different blocks of code based on which condition
is true.

Syntax:
if condition:
# Code to execute if condition1 is true elif condition2:
# Code to execute if condition2 is true else:
# Code to execute if none of the above conditions are true

Example:
Grading system: Let’s write a code to classify the student’s
grade based on their total marks (out of hundred).
score = 85
if score >= 90: print("Grade - A")
elif score >= 80:
print("Grade - B")
elif score >= 70:
print("Grade - C")
else:
print("Grade - D")

4. Nested 'if-else' Conditional Statement

A nested if-else statement in Python involves placing an if-else
statement inside another if-else statement. This allows for
more complex decision-making by checking multiple
conditions that depend on each other.

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 Syntax:
if condition1:
# Code block for condition1 being True
if condition2:
# Code block for condition2 being True
else:
# Code block for condition2 being False else: # Code block for
condition1 being False ... ..

Example:
Number Classification: Let's say you want to classify a number
as positive, negative, or zero and further classify positive
numbers as even or odd.
number = 10
if number > 0: # First check if the number is positive
if number % 2 == 0:
print("The number is positive and even.")
else:
print("The number is positive and odd.")
else: # The number is not positive if number == 0:
print("The number is zero.")
else:
print("The number is negative.")

5. Conditional Expressions
Conditional expressions provide a shorthand way to write
simple if-else statements. Also known as Ternary Operator.

Syntax:
value_if_true if condition else value_if_false
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 Example:
age = 16
status = "Adult" if age >= 18 else "Minor" print(status)

Conditional Statements- HW

Q1: what is expected output and reason?

value = None
if value: print("Value is True")
else:
print("Value is False")

Q2: write a simple program to determine if a given year is a

leap year using user input.

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 Chapter - 10

Functions in Python
• Functions definition
• Types of Functions
• Function examples

Functions in Python
A function is a block of code that performs a specific task. You
can use it whenever you want by calling its name, which saves
you from writing the same code multiple times.

Benefits of Using Function: Increases code Readability &

Reusability.
Basic Concepts:
• Create function: Use the def keyword to define a function.
• Call function: Use the function's name followed by () to run it.
•Parameter: The variable listed inside parentheses in function
definition.
• Argument: The actual value you pass to function when you
call it.

Types of Functions
Below are the two types of functions in Python:
1. Built-in library function:
• These are Standard functions in Python that are available to
use.
• Examples: print(), input(), type(), sum(), max(), etc

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 2. User-defined function:
• We can create our own functions based on our requirements.
• Examples: create your own function :)

Function without Parameters

Example:1
# Create or Define Function def greetings():
print("Welcome to Python tutorial by Rishabh")

# Use or call this Function greetings()

# Output: Welcome to Python tutorial by Rishabh

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 Function with Parameters
Example:2
# function to adds two numbers & print result. def
add2numbers(a, b):
result = a + b
print("The sum is:", result)
# Calling this function with arguments add2numbers(5, 3)
# Output: The sum is: 8

The return Statement

The return statement is used in a function to send a result back
to the place where the function was called. When return is
executed, the function stops running and immediately returns
the specified value.

Example:
def add(a, b):
return a + b # This line sends back sum of a and b
result = add(3, 5)
print(result)

# Output: 8

Function with a Return value

Example:3
# function to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit
def celsius_to_fahrenheit(celsius):
fahrenheit = (celsius * 9/5) + 32
return Fahrenheit

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 # Calling this function to return a value
temp_f = celsius_to_fahrenheit(25)
print("Temperature in Fahrenheit:", temp_f)
# Output: Temperature in Fahrenheit: 77.0

The pass Statement

The pass statement is a placeholder in a function or loop. It
does nothing and is used when you need to write code that will
be added later or to define an empty function.

Example:
def myfunction():
pass # This does nothing for now

Functions – HW
Write a Python program to create a calculator that can
perform at least five different mathematical operations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and average.
Ensure that the program is user-friendly, prompting for input
and displaying the results clearly.

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 Chapter - 11

Function Arguments in Python

• Function Arguments
• Types of Functions Arguments
•Function Arguments examples

Arguments in Function
Arguments are the values that are passed into a function when
it’s called. A function must be called with the right number of
arguments. If a function has 2 parameters, you must provide 2
arguments when calling it.

Example: function defined using one parameter (variable)

def greetings(name): # name is a parameter
print("Hello, " + name + "!")
greetings("Madhav")
# Output: Hello, Madhav!

Types of Function Arguments

# Madhav as argument Python supports various types of
arguments that can be passed at the time of the function call.
1. Required arguments (Single/Multiple arguments)
2. Default argument
3. Keyword arguments (named arguments)
4. Arbitrary arguments (variable-length arguments *args and
**kwargs)

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 can be given in any order. Example: function defined using two
parameters def divide(a, b): # a,b are 2 parameters return a /
b result = divide(b=10, a=20) # with keyword arguments
print(result) # Output: 2
result = divide(10, 20) print(result) # positional arguments
# Output: 0.5

Arbitrary Positional Arguments (*args)

If you're unsure how many arguments will be passed, use *args
to accept any number of positional arguments.
Purpose: Allows you to pass a variable number of positional
arguments.
Type: The arguments are stored as a tuple.
Usage: Use when you want to pass multiple values that are
accessed by position.

Example 1:
def add_numbers(*args):
return sum(args)
# Any number of arguments result = add_numbers(1, 2, 3, 4)
print(result) # Output: 10

Note: Here, *args collects all the passed arguments into a

tuple, & sum() function adds them.

Example 2:
def greetings(*names):
for name in names: print(f"Hello, {name}!") greetings("Madhav",
"Rishabh", "Visakha") # Output: Hello, Madhav! Hello, Rishabh!
Hello, Visakha!
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 Arbitrary Keyword Arguments (**kwargs)

If you want to pass a variable number of keyword arguments,

use **kwargs.
Purpose: Allows you to pass a variable number of keyword
arguments (arguments with names).
Type: The arguments are stored as a dictionary.
Usage: Use when you want to pass multiple values that are
accessed by name.

Example 1:
def print_details(**kwargs):
for key, value in kwargs.items():
print(f"{key}: {value}")
print_details(name="Madhav", age=26, city="Delhi")
# Output:
name: Madhav
age: 26
city: Delhi

Example 2:
def shopping_cart(**products):
total = 0
print("Items Purchased:") for item, price in products.items():
print(f"{item}: ₹{price}") total += price print(f"Total: ₹{total}")
# multiple keyword arguments
shopping_cart(apple=15, orange=12, mango=10)
# Output:
Items Purchased:
apple: ₹15 orange: ₹12 mango: ₹10 Total: ₹37
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 Chapter - 12

Strings in Python (Part-1)

• Strings and Examples
• Formatted Strings
• Escape Characters
• String Operators

Strings in Python
A string is a sequence of characters. In Python, strings are
enclosed within single (') or double (") or triple (""") quotation
marks.

Examples:
print('Hello World!')
print("Won’t Give Up!") # use type() to check data type
print('''"Quotes" and 'single quotes' can be tricky.''')
print("\"Quotes\" and 'single quotes' can be tricky.")

Types of Function Arguments

A formatted string in Python is a way to insert variables or
expressions inside a string. It allows you to format the output in
a readable and controlled way. There are multiple ways to
format strings in Python:
1. Old-style formatting (% operator)
2. str.format() method
3. F-strings (formatted string literals)

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 Required Arguments (same as above)
Required arguments are the arguments passed to a function in
correct positional order. A function must be called with the
right number of arguments. If a function has 2 parameters, you
must provide 2 arguments when calling it.

Example: function defined using one parameter (variable)

def greetings(name): # name is a parameter
print("Hello, " + name + "!")
greetings("Madhav")
# Output: Hello, Madhav!

Default Arguments
You can assign default values to arguments in a function
definition. If a value isn't provided when the function is called,
the default value is used.

Example: function defined using one parameter & default

value
def greetings(name = "World"): # default value
print("Hello, " + name + "!")
greetings() # No argument passed
# Output: Hello, World!
greetings("Madhav") # Madhav as argument
# Output: Hello, Madhav!

Keyword Arguments
When calling a function, you can specify arguments by the
parameter name. These are called keyword arguments and

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 Formatted String - % Operator
Old-style formatting (% operator)
This approach uses the % operator and is similar to string
formatting in languages like C.

Syntax: "string % value"

Example:
name = "Madhav"
age = 16
print("My name is %s and I’m %d." % (name, age))
# %s, %d are placeholders for strings and integers

Formatted String - str.format()

str.format() method
In Python 3, the format() method is more powerful and flexible
than the old-style % formatting.

Syntax: "string {}".format(value)

Example: name = "Madhav"
age = 16 print("My name is {} and I’m {}.".format(name, age)) #
You can also reference the variables by index or keyword:
print("My name is {0} and I’m {1}.".format(name, age))
print("My name is {name} and I’m
{age}.".format(name="Madhav", age=28))

Formatted String – F-strings

F-strings (formatted string literals) In Python 3.6, F-strings are
the most concise and efficient way to format strings. You prefix
the string with an f or F, and variables or expressions are
embedded directly within curly braces {}.
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 Syntax: f"string {variable}"
Example:
name = "Madhav"
age = 16
print(f"My name is {name} and I’m {age}.")
# You can also perform expressions inside the placeholders:
print(f"In 5 years, I will be {age + 5} years old.")

Escape Characters
Escape characters in Python are special characters used in
strings to represent whitespace, symbols, or control characters
that would otherwise be difficult to include. An escape
character is a backslash \ followed by the character you want
to insert.
Examples:
print('Hello\nWorld!')
print('Hello\tWorld!') # \n for new line # \t for tab
print("\"Quotes\" and 'single quotes' can be tricky.") #
print single and double quotes

String Operators

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 Chapter - 13
Strings in Python (Part-2)
• String Indexing
• String Slicing
• String Methods

String Indexing
You can access individual characters in a string using their
index. Python uses zero-based indexing, meaning the first
character has an index of 0. Index: Position of the character.

Syntax:
string[Index_Value]
Example:
name = "MADHAV"

String Indexing – Positive & Negative Index

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 String Slicing
Slicing in Python is a feature that enables accessing parts of
the sequence. String slicing allows you to get subset of
characters from a string using a specified range of indices.

Syntax:
string[start : end : step]
• start : The index to start slicing (inclusive). Default value is 0.
• end : The index to stop slicing (exclusive). Default value is
length of string.
• Step : How much to increment the index after each character.
Default value is 1.

Example:
name = "MADHAV"
name[0:2] = 'MA'
name[0:5:2] = 'MDA'

String Slicing - Examples

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 String Methods

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 Chapter - 14

Loops in Python
• Loops & Types
• While Loop
• For Loop
• Range Function
• Loop Control Statements

Loops in Python
Loops enable you to perform repetitive tasks efficiently without
writing redundant code. They iterate over a sequence (like a
list, tuple, string, or range) or execute a block of code as long as
a specific condition is met.

Types of Loops in Python

1. While loop 2. For loop 3. Nested loop While Loop The while loop
repeatedly executes a block of code as long as a given
condition remains True. It checks the condition before each
iteration.
Syntax:
while condition:
# Code block to execute

Example: Print numbers from 0 to 3

count = 0
while count < 4: # Condition
print(count)
count += 1
# Output: 0 1 2 3
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 While Loop Example
else Statement: An else clause can be added to loops. It
executes after the loop finishes normally (i.e., not terminated by
break). Example:
count = 3
while count > 0: # Condition
print("Countdown:", count)
count -= 1
else:
print("Liftoff!") # Run after while loop ends

For Loop The for loop in Python is used to iterate over a

sequence (such as a list, tuple, dictionary, set, or string) and
execute a block of code for each element in that sequence.

Syntax: for variable in sequence:

# Code block to execute

Example: iterate over each character in language

language = 'Python’
for x in language:
print(x) # Output: P y t h o n

Using range() Function

To repeat a block of code a specified number of times, we use
the range() function. The range() function returns a sequence
of numbers, starting from 0 by default, increments by 1 (by
default), and stops before a specified number.

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 Syntax:
range(stop)
range(start, stop)
range(start, stop, step)
• start: (optional) The beginning of the sequence. Defaults is 0.
(inclusive)
• stop: The end of the sequence (exclusive).
• step: (optional) The difference between each number in the
sequence.
Defaults is 1.

range() Function Example

Example1: Basic usage with One Argument - Stop
for i in range(5):
print(I)
# Output: 0 1 2 3 4
Example2: Basic usage with Start, Stop and Step
for i in range(1, 10, 2):
print(I)
# Output: 1 3 5 7 9

For Loop Example

else Statement: An else clause can be added to loops. It
executes after the loop finishes normally (i.e., not terminated by
break).
Example: for i in range(3):
print(I)
else:
print("Loop completed")
# Output: 0 1 2 Loop Completed
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 while loop VS for loop

while loop
• A while loop keeps running as long as a condition is true.
• It is generally used when you don’t know how many iterations
will be needed beforehand, and loop continues based on a
condition.

for loop
• A for loop iterates over a sequence (like a strings, list, tuple, or
range) and runs the loop for each item in that sequence.
• It is used when you know in advance how many times you
want to repeat a block of code.

Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements allow you to alter the normal flow of a
loop. Python supports 3 clauses within loops:
• pass statement
• break Statement
• continue Statement

Loop Control - pass Statement

pass Statement: The pass statement is used as a placeholder
(it does nothing) for the future code, and runs entire code
without causing any syntax error. (already covered in
functions)
Example: for i in range(5):
# code to be updated
pass
Above example, the loop executes without error using pass statement

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 Loop Control - break Statement
break Statement: The break statement terminates the loop
entirely, exiting from it immediately.
Example: for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
break print(i) # Output: 0 1 2
Above example, the loop terminated when condition met true
for i == 3

Loop Control - continue Statement

continue Statement: The continue statement skips the current
iteration and moves to the next one.
Example:
for i in range(5):
if i == 3:
continue
print(i) # Output: 0 1 2 4
Above example, the loop skips when condition met true for i == 3

break vs continue Statement

break Statement example
# pass statement count = 5
while count > 0: if count == 3:
pass
else: print(count) count -= 1
# Output: 5 4 2 1

continue Statement example

# continue statement: don't try - infinite loop
count = 5

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 while count > 0:
if count == 3:
# continue
else: print(count) count -= 1
# Output: 5 4 3 3…….

Validate User Input

# validate user input: controlled infinite while loop using break
statement
while True: user_input = input("Enter 'exit' to STOP: ")
if user_input == 'exit':
print("congarts! You guessed it right!")
break
print("sorry, you entered: ", user_input)

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 Chapter - 15

Nested Loops in Python

• Nested Loops Definition
• Nested Loops Examples
• Nested Loops Interview Ques

Nested Loops in Python

Loop inside another loop is nested loop. This means that for
every single time the outer loop runs, the inner loop runs all of
its iterations.

Why Use Nested Loops?

• Handling Multi-Dimensional Data: Such as matrices, grids, or
lists of lists.
• Complex Iterations: Operations depend on multiple variables
or dimensions.
• Pattern Generation: Creating patterns, such as in graphics or
games.

Nested Loop Syntax

Syntax:
Outer_loop:
inner_loop:
# Code block to execute - inner loop
# Code block to execute - outer loop

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 Nested Loop Example
Example: Print numbers from 1 to 3, for 3 times using for-for
nested loop
for i in range(3): # Outer for loop (runs 3 times)
for j in range(1,4):
print(j)
print()
Example: Print numbers from 1 to 3, for 3 times using while for
nested loop
i=1
while i < 4: # Outer while loop (runs 3 times)
for j in range(1, 4):
print(j)
print() i += 1

Nested Loop Interview Question

Example: Print prime numbers from 2 to 10
for num in range(2, 10):
for i in range(2, num):
if num % i == 0:
break
else:
print(num)

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 Chapter - 16

List in Python
• What is List
• Create Lists
• Access List: Indexing & Slicing
• Modify List
• List Methods
• Join Lists
• List Comprehensions
• Lists Iteration

List in Python
A list in Python is a collection of items (elements) that are
ordered, changeable (mutable), and allow duplicate elements.
Lists are one of the most versatile data structures in Python and
are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Example: fruits = ["apple", "orange", "cherry", "apple"] print(fruits)
# Output: ['apple', 'orange', 'cherry', 'apple']

Create List in Python

You can create lists in Python by placing comma-separated
values between square brackets []. Lists can contain elements
of different data types, including other lists.

Syntax: list_name = [element1, element2, element, ...]

# List of strings
colors = ["red", "green", "blue"]
# List of integers numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
# Mixed data types
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 mixed = [1, "hello", 3.14, True]
# Nested list
nested = [1, [2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]

Accessing List Elements - Indexing

You can access elements in a list by referring to their index.
Python uses zero-based indexing, meaning the first element
has an index of 0.
Syntax: list_name[index]
Example:
ruits = ["apple", "orange", "cherry", "apple", "mango"]

# Access first element

print(fruits[0]) # Output: apple
# Access third element
print(fruits[2]) # Output: cherry
# Access last element using negative index
print(fruits[-1]) # Output: mango

List Slicing
Slicing allows you to access a range of elements in a list. You
can specify the start and stop indices, and Python returns a
new list containing the specified elements.
Syntax: list_name[start:stop:step]
Example: numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]

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 # Slice from index 1 to 3
print(numbers[1:4]) # Output: [20, 30, 40]
# Slice from start to index 2
print(numbers[:3]) # Output: [10, 20, 30]
# Slice all alternate elements
print(numbers[0::2]) # Output: [10, 30, 50]
# Slice with negative indices
print(numbers[-4:-1]) # Output: [30, 40, 50]
# Reverse list
print(numbers[::-1]) # Output: [60,50,40,30,20,10]

Modifying List
Lists are mutable, meaning you can change their content after
creation. You can add, remove, or change elements in a list.
# Initial list: fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] #
Changing an element fruits[1] = "blueberry"
print(fruits) # Output: ['apple', 'blueberry', 'cherry']
# Adding an element fruits.append("mango")
print(fruits) # Output: ['apple', 'blueberry', 'cherry’, 'mango']
# Removing an element
fruits.remove("cherry")
print(fruits) # Output: ['apple', 'blueberry', 'mango']

List Methods
Python provides several built-in methods to modify and
operate on lists. Eg:

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 Join Lists
There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists
in Python.
list1 = [1, 2]
list2 = ["a", "b"]
# One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator
list3 = list1 + list2
print(list3) # Output: [1, 2, 'a', 'b']
# using append method for x in list2:
list1.append(x)
# appending all the items from list2 into list1, one by one
print(list1) # Output: [1, 2, 'a', 'b']
# using extend method
list1.extend(list2) # add elements from one list to another
list
print(list1) # Output: [1, 2, 'a', 'b']

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 List Comprehensions
List comprehensions provide a concise way to create lists. They
consist of brackets containing an expression followed by a for
clause, and optionally if clauses.
# Syntax:
new_list = [expression for item in iterable if condition]
# Creating a list of squares:
squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 6)]
print(squares) # Output: [1, 4, 9, 16, 25]
# Filtering even numbers: even_numbers = [x for x in range(1,
11) if x % 2 == 0]
print(even_numbers) # Output: [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
# Applying a function to each element:
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
uppercase_fruits = [fruit.upper() for fruit in fruits]
print(uppercase_fruits) # Output: ['APPLE', 'BANANA', 'CHERRY']

List Comprehensions - Flatten a List

Flatten a Nested List - using List Comprehension
def flatten_list(lst):
return [item for sublist in lst for item in sublist]
# Example
nested_list = [[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]]
flattened = flatten_list(nested_list)
print(flattened)
# Output: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Iterating Over Lists

Iterating allows you to traverse each element in a list, typically
using loops. #Example: fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
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 # Using for loop
for fruit in fruits:
print(fruit)
# Using while loop
index = 0
while index < len(fruits):
print(fruits[index])
index += 1

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 Chapter - 17

Tuple in Python
• What is Tuple
• Create Tuples
• Access Tuples: Indexing & Slicing
• Tuple Operations
• Tuple Iteration
• Tuple Methods
• Tuple Functions
• Unpack Tuples
• Modify Tuple

Tuple in Python
A tuple is a collection of items in Python that is ordered,
unchangeable (immutable) and allow duplicate values.
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Note: Ordered – Tuple items have a defined order, but that
order will not change.
Example: fruits = ("apple", "orange", "cherry", "apple")
print(fruits)
# Output: ('apple', 'orange', 'cherry', 'apple')

Create Tuple in Python

There are several ways to create a tuple in Python:
1. Using Parentheses ()
colors = ("red", "green", "blue")
numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
mixed = (1, "hello", 3.14, True)
nested = (1, [2, 3], (4, 5, 6))
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 2. Without Parentheses (Comma-Separated)
also_numbers = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
3. Using the tuple() Constructor
new_tuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # use doble
brackets
list_items = ["x", "y", "z"] # Creating a tuple from a list
tuple_items = tuple(list_items) # ('x', 'y', 'z’)
4. Single-Item Tuple
tuplesingle = ("only",)

Accessing Tuple Elements - Indexing You can access

elements in a tuple by referring to their index. Python uses zero-
based indexing, meaning the first element has an index of 0.
Syntax: tuple_name[index] Example:
fruits = ("apple", "orange", "cherry", "apple", "mango")

# Access first element

print(fruits[0]) # Output: apple
# Access third element
print(fruits[2]) # Output: cherry
# Access last element using negative index
print(fruits[-1]) # Output: mango

Tuple Slicing
Slicing allows you to access a range of elements in a tuple. You
can specify the start and stop indices, and Python returns a
new tuple containing the specified elements.
Syntax: tuple_name[start:stop:step]
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 Example:
numbers = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60)

# Slice from index 1 to 3

print(numbers[1:4]) # Output: (20, 30, 40)
# Slice from start to index 2
print(numbers[:3]) # Output: (10, 20, 30)
# Slice all alternate elements
print(numbers[0::2]) # Output: (10, 30, 50)
# Slice with negative indices
print(numbers[-4:-1]) # Output: (30, 40, 50)
# Reverse list
print(numbers[::-1]) # Output: (60,50,40,30,20,10)

Tuple Operations
1. Concatenation
# You can join two or more tuples using the + operator.
tuple1 = (1, 2, 3)
tuple2 = (4, 5)
combined = tuple1 + tuple2
print(combined) # Output: (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

2. Repetition
# You can repeat a tuple multiple times using the * operator.
tuple3 = ("hello",) * 3
print(tuple3) # Output: ('hello', 'hello', 'hello’)

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 3. Checking for an Item
# Use the in keyword to check if an item exists in a tuple.
numbers = (10, 20, 30, 40)
print(20 in numbers) # Output: True

Iterating Over Tuple

Iterating allows you to traverse each element in a tuple, using
loops.
#Example: fruits = ("apple", "mango", "cherry")
# Using for loop for fruit in fruits:
print(fruit)
# Using while loop i = 0 while i < len(fruits):
print(fruits[I])
index += 1

Tuple Methods
Python provides two built-in methods to use on tuples.

# count
colors = ("red", "green", "blue", "green")
print(colors.count("green")) # Output: 2
# index colors = ("red", "green", "blue", "green")
print(colors.index("blue")) # Output: 2

Tuple Functions
Python provides several built-in functions to use on tuples.

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 numbers = (2, 3, 1, 4)
print(len(numbers)) # Output: 4
sorted_num = sorted(numbers)
print(sorted_num) # Output: [1,2,3,4]
print(sum(numbers)) # Output: 10
print(min(numbers)) # Output: 1
print(max(numbers)) # Output: 4

Packing and Unpacking Tuples

a. Packing is the process of putting multiple values into a single
tuple.
a = "Madhav"
b = 21
c = "Engineer"
pack_tuple = a,b,c # Packing values into a tuple
print(pack_tuple)
b. Unpacking is extracting the values from a tuple into separate
variables.
name, age, profession = person # Unpacking a tuple
print(name) # Output: Madhav
print(age) # Output: 21
print(profession) # Output: Engineer

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 Modifying Tuple - Immutable
Once a tuple is created, you cannot modify its elements. This
means you cannot add, remove, or change items.
# Creating a tuple numbers = (1, 2, 3)
# Attempting to change an item numbers[0] = 10
# This will raise an error

Modifying Tuple
But there is a trick. You can convert the tuple into a list, change
the list, and convert the list back into a tuple.
my_tuple = ("apple", "mango", "cherry")
# type cast tuple to list
y = list(my_tuple)
y.append("orange")
# type cast back list to tuple
my_tuple = tuple(y)
print(my_tuple)

Tuple Use Case - Examples

Storing Fixed Data (Immutable Data)
Example: Storing geographic coordinates (latitude, longitude)
or RGB color values, where the values shouldn’t be changed
after assignment.
coordinates = (40.7128, -74.0060) # Latitude and longitude for
NYC
rgb_color = (255, 0, 0) # RGB value for red

Using Tuples as Keys in Dictionaries

Since tuples are immutable and hashable, they can be used as

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 keys in dictionaries, unlike lists.
location_data = {
(40.7128, -74.0060): "New York City",
(34.0522, -118.2437): "Los Angeles"
}
print(location_data[(40.7128, -74.0060)]) # Output: New York
City

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 Chapter - 18

Set in Python
• What is a Set
• Create Sets • Set Operations
• Set Methods
• Set Iteration
• Set Comprehensions

Set in Python
A set is a collection of unique items in Python. Sets do not allow
duplicate items and do not maintain any particular order so it
can’t be indexed.

Characteristics of Sets:
• Unordered: Elements have no defined order. You cannot
access elements by index.
• Unique Elements: No duplicates allowed. Each element must
be distinct.
• Mutable: You can add or remove elements after creation.
• Immutable Elements: individual elements inside a set cannot
be modified/replaced
Example:
vowels = {'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u'}

Create Set in Python

There are two primary ways to create a set in Python:
1. Using Curly Braces {}
my_set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
print(my_set) # Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
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 2. Using the set() Constructor
my_set = set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
print(my_set) # Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Note: An empty set cannot be created using {} as it creates an
empty dictionary. Use set() instead.
empty_set = set()
print(empty_set) # Output: set()

Set Operations
1. Adding Elements : Use the add() method to add a single
element to a set.
fruits = {'apple', 'banana'}
fruits.add('cherry')
print(fruits) # Output: {'apple', 'banana', 'cherry’}

2. Removing Elements: Use the remove() or discard() methods

to remove elements.
• remove() raises an error if the element is not found.
• discard() does not raise an error if the element is missing.
fruits = {'apple', 'banana', 'cherry'}
# Using remove()
fruits.remove('banana')
print(fruits) # Output: {'apple', 'cherry'}
# Using discard()
fruits.discard('orange') # No error even if 'orange' is not in the
set
print(fruits) # Output: {'apple', 'cherry’}

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 Set Methods
1. Union: Combines elements from two sets, removing
duplicates.
set_a = {1, 2, 3}
set_b = {3, 4, 5}
union_set = set_a.union(set_b)
print(union_set) # Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Alternative Syntax: union_set = set_a | set_b

2. Intersection: Includes only elements present in both sets.

set_a = {1, 2, 3}
set_b = {2, 3, 4}
intersection_set = set_a.intersection(set_b)
print(intersection_set) # Output: {2, 3}
Alternative Syntax: intersection_set = set_a & set_b

3. Difference: Elements present in the first set but not in the

second.
set_a = {1, 2, 3, 4}
set_b = {3, 4, 5}
difference_set = set_a.difference(set_b)
print(difference_set) # Output: {1, 2}
Alternative Syntax: difference_set = set_a - set_b

4. Symmetric Difference: Elements in either set, but not in both.

set_a = {1, 2, 3}
set_b = {3, 4, 5}
sym_diff_set = set_a.symmetric_difference(set_b)
print(sym_diff_set) # Output: {1, 2, 4, 5}
Alternative Syntax: sym_diff_set = set_a ^ set_b
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 Set Iterations – Loop
You can use a for loop to go through each element in a set.
# Using for loop - Printing each number from a set numbers =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
for number in numbers:
print(number)
# Using while loop - first convert set to a list then use while loop
because sets do not support indexing.

Set Comprehension Set comprehensions allow concise and

readable creation of sets. Similar to list comprehensions but for
sets.
# Syntax: new_set = {expression for item in iterable if
condition}
# Example:
squares = {x**2 for x in range(1, 6)}
print(squares) # Output: {1, 4, 9, 16, 25}

Set Common Use Cases

• Removing Duplicates: Easily eliminate duplicate entries from
data.
• Membership Testing: Quickly check if an item exists in a
collection.
• Set Operations: Perform mathematical operations like union,
intersection, and difference.
• Data Analysis: Useful in scenarios requiring unique items, such
as tags, categories, or unique identifiers.
# Example: Removing Duplicates from a List
numbers = [1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5]
unique_numbers = set(numbers)
print(unique_numbers) # Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
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 Chapter - 19

Dictionary in Python
• What is a Dictionary
• Create Dictionary
• Access Dictionary Values
• Dictionary Methods
• Dictionary – Add, Modify & Remove Items
• Dictionary Iteration
• Nested Dictionary
• Dictionary Comprehensions

Dictionary in Python
A dictionary is a data structure in Python that stores data in
key-value pairs. Dictionary items (key – value pair) are
ordered, changeable, and do not allow duplicates.
• Key: Must be unique and immutable (strings, numbers, or
tuples).
• Value: Can be any data type and does not need to be unique.
Example: Simple dictionary with three key-value pairs student
={
1: "Class-X", "name": "Madhav", "age": 20 }

Create Dictionary in Python

Method-1: We create a dictionary using curly braces {} and
separating keys and values with a colon.
# Syntax
my_dict =
{"key1": "value1", "key2": "value2", "key3": "value3", …}

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 # Empty dictionary
empty_dict = {}
# Dictionary with data
cohort = {
"course": "Python",
"instructor": "Rishabh Mishra",
"level": "Beginner" }

Method-2: Using dict() constructor

Pass key-value pairs as keyword arguments to dict()
person = dict(name="Madhav", age=20, city="Mathura")
print(person) # Output: {'name': 'Madhav', 'age’: 20, 'city':
'Mathura'}

Method-3: Using a List of Tuples

Pass a list of tuples, where each tuple contains a key-value
pair.
student = dict([("name", "Madhav"), ("age", 20), ("grade", "A")])
print(student) # Output: {'name': 'Madhav', 'age’: 20, 'grade': 'A'}

Access Dictionary Values

Access dictionary values by using the key name inside square
brackets.
Example:
student = {
1: "Class-X",
"name": "Madhav",
"age": 20
}

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 # print value based on respective key-names
print(student["name"]) # Output: Madhav
print(student["age"]) # Output: 20

Dictionary Methods
Python provides several built-in methods to use on dictionary.

Here are a few useful methods:

• .keys(): Returns all keys in the dictionary.
• .values(): Returns all values in the dictionary.
• .items(): Returns all key-value pairs.
• .get(): Returns value for a key (with an optional default if key is
missing).

Examples
print(student.keys()) # All keys
print(student.values()) # All values

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 print(student.items()) # All key-value pairs
print(student.get("name")) # Safe way to access a value

Dictionary – Add, Modify & Remove Items

1. Add or Modify Item: Use assign-operator '=' to add/modify
items in a dictionary.
# Adding a new key-value pair
student["email"] = "[email protected]"
# Modifying an existing value student["age"] = 25

2. Remove Item: Use del or .pop() to remove items from a

dictionary.
# Remove with del del student["age"] # Remove with pop()
and store the removed value email = student.pop("email")
print(email) # Output: [email protected]

Dictionary Iterations
A dictionary can be iterated using for loop. We can loop
through dictionaries by keys, values, or both.
# Loop through keys
for key in student: print(key)
# Loop through values
for value in student: print(student[value])
# Loop through values: using values() method
for value in student.values():
print(value)
# Loop through both keys and values
for key, value in student.items():
print(key, value)

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 Nested Dictionary
Dictionaries can contain other dictionaries, which is useful for
storing more complex data. # nested dictionaries
students = {
"student1": {
"name": "Madhav",
"age": 20,
"grade": "A"
},
"student2": {
"name": "Keshav",
"age": 21,
"grade": "B"
}
}
print(students["student1"]["name"]) # Output: Madhav

Dictionary Comprehension
A dictionary comprehension allows you to create dictionaries
in a concise way.
# Syntax:
new_dict =
{key_expression: value_expression for item in iterable if
condition}
# Example: Creating a dictionary with square numbers
squares = {x: x * x for x in range(1, 6)}
print(squares)
# Output: {1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25}

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 Dictionary Common Use Cases
• User Profiles in Web Applications: Store user details like name,
email, etc.
• Product Inventory Management: Keep track of stock levels for
products in an e commerce system.
• API Responses: Parse JSON data returned from APIs (e.g.,
weather data).
• Grouping Data: Organize data into categories. Example:
grouped = {"fruits": ["apple", "banana"], "veggies": ["carrot"]}
• Caching: Store computed results to reuse and improve
performance. Example: cache = {"factorial_5": 120}
• Switch/Lookup Tables: Simulate switch-case for decision-
making.
# Example: actions = {"start": start_fn, "stop": stop_fn}
actions["start"]()

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 Chapter - 20

OOPs in Python
• What is OOPs
• Why OOP is required
• Class and Object
• Attributes and Methods
• __init__ Method (Constructor) • Abstraction • Encapsulation
• Inheritance
• Polymorphism

OOPs in Python
Two ways of programming in Python:
1) Procedural Programming,
2) OOPs

OOPs: Object Oriented Programming

A way of organizing code by creating "blueprints" (called
classes) to represent real-world things like a student, car, or
house. These blueprints help you create objects (individual
examples of those things) and define their behavior.

Class: A class is a blueprint or template for creating objects. It

defines the properties (attributes) & actions/behaviors
(methods) that objects of this type will have.

Object: An object is a specific instance of a class. It has actual

data based on the blueprint defined by the class.

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 OOPs Example in Python
Example: Constructing a building
Class: Blueprint for a floor.
Object: Actual house built from the blueprint. Each house
(object) can have different features, like paint color or size, but
follows the same blueprint.

Why OOPs?
• Models Real-World Problems:
Mimics real-world entities for easier understanding.
• Code Reusability: Encourages reusable, modular, and
organized code.
• Easier Maintenance: OOP organizes code into small,
manageable parts (classes and objects). Changes in one part
don’t impact others, making it easier to maintain.
• Encapsulation: Encapsulation protects data integrity and
privacy by bundling dat within objects. • Flexibility & Scalability:
OOP makes it easier to add new features without affecting
existing code.

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 OOPs – Question
Write a Python program to:
1. Define a Student class with attributes name, grade,
percentage, and team.
• Include an __init__ method to initialize these attributes.
• Add a method student_details that prints the student’s
details in the format: " is in grade with %, from team ".
2. Create two teams (team1 and team2) as string variables.
3. Create at least two student objects, each belonging to one of
the teams.
4. Call the student_details method for each student to display
their details.

Class and Object Example

Class: A class is a blueprint or template for creating objects.
Object: An object is a specific instance of a class.
Example class Student: pass
# Create an object
student1 = Student()
print(type(student1)) # Output:

Attributes and Methods

Attributes: Variables that hold data about the object.
Methods: Functions defined inside a class that describe its
behavior.
Example
class Student: def __init__(self, name, grade): self.name =
name # Attribute self.grade = grade # Attribute def
get_grade(self): # Method return f"{self.name} is in grade
{self.grade}."
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 # Object creation
student1 = Student("Madhav", 10)
print(student1.get_grade()) # Output: Madhav is in grade 10.

The __init__ Method (Constructor)

Whenever we create/construct an object of a class, there is an
inbuilt method __init__ which is automatically called to
initialize attributes. The self parameter is a reference to the
current instance of the class, and is used to access variables
that belong to the class.

Example
class Student:
def __init__(self, name, grade):
self.name = name
self.grade = grade
# Initialize object with attributes student1 = Student("Madhav",
10)
print(student1.name) # Output: Madhav

Abstraction in Python: Hiding unnecessary details

Abstraction hides implementation details and shows only the
relevant functionality to the user.
Example class
Student:
def __init__(self, name, grade, percentage):
self.name = name
self.grade = grade
self.percentage = percentage

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 def is_honors(self): # Abstracting the logic
return self.percentage > 90 # Logic hidden
# Abstract method in use
student1 = Student("Madhav", 10, 98)
print(student1.is_honors()) # Output: True

Encapsulation in Python:
Restricting direct access to attributes & methods
Encapsulation restricts access to certain attributes or methods
to protect the data and enforce controlled access.

Example class Student:

def __init__(self, name, grade, percentage):
self.name = name
self.grade = grade
self.__percentage = percentage # Private attribute (hidden)
def get_percentage(self): # Public method to access the
private attribute return self.__percentage
# Creating a student object
student1 = Student("Madhav", 10, 98)
# Accessing the private attribute using the public method
print(f"{student1.name}'s percentage is
{student1.get_percentage()}%.")
print(student1.__percentage) # error

Inheritance in Python: Reusing Parent’s prop & methods

Inheritance (parent-child), allows one class (child) to reuse the
properties and methods of another class (parent). This avoids
duplication and helps in code reuse.
Example
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 class Student:
def __init__(self, name, grade, percentage):
self.name = name
self.grade = grade self.percentage = percentage
def student_details(self): # method
print(f'{self.name} is in {self.grade} grade with
{self.percentage}%')
class GraduateStudent(Student): # GraduateStudent inherits
from Student
def __init__(self, name, grade, percentage, stream):
super().__init__(name, grade, percentage) # Call parent
class initializer
self.stream = stream # New attribute specific to
GraduateStudent def student_details(self):
super().student_details()
print(f"Stream: {self.stream}")
# Create a graduate student
grad_student = GraduateStudent("Vishakha", 12, 94, "PCM")
# Vishakha is in 12 grade with 94%
grad_student.student_details() # Stream: PCM

Polymorphism in Python: Same method but different output

Polymorphism allows methods in different classes to have the
same name but behave differently depending on the object.
Example
class GraduateStudent(Student):
def student_details(self): # Same method as in parent class
print(f"{self.name} is a graduate student from final year.")

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 # Polymorphism in action
student1 = Student("Madhav", 10, 98)
grad_student = GraduateStudent("Sudevi", 12, 99, "PCM")
student1.student_details()
# Output: Madhav is in 10 grade with 98%
grad_student.student_details()
# Output: Sudevi is a graduate student from final year.

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 Chapter - 21

Modules, Packages & Libraries in Python

• What is Module
• Create & Use a Module
• What is Package
• What is Library • Python pip
• Most used Libraries

Modules in Python A module is a single Python file (.py)

containing Python code. It can include functions, classes, and
variables that you can reuse in other programs.

Why use modules?

• To organize code into smaller, manageable chunks.
• To reuse code across multiple programs.
# Create a module:
• Save the following as mymodule.py
def say_hello(name): return print(f"Hello, {name}!") # Use the
module: import mymodule
greetings.say_hello("Madhav")
# Output: Hello, Madhav!

Packages in Python A package is a collection of modules

organized in directories (folders) with an __init__.py file. It
allows you to structure your Python projects logically.

Why use packages?

• To group related modules together.
• To create larger applications or libraries.
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 # Structure Example:
my_package/
__init__.py
math_utils.py
string_utils.py
# Use the package:
Syntax: from my_package import
Example: from my_package import math_utils, string_utils

Libraries in Python
A library is a collection of modules and packages that provide
pre-written functionality for your program. Libraries are
typically larger and more feature-rich than packages or
modules.

Why use libraries?

To avoid writing common functionality from scratch.
To leverage powerful tools developed by the community.

Example: Python has many popular libraries, such as:

• Pandas: For data manipulation.
• Matplotlib: For plotting and visualization.
# Using a library (Pandas):
import pandas as pd

Python PIP
pip stands for "Pip Installs Packages". It is the package
manager for Python that allows you to install, update, and
manage Python libraries (packages) from the Python Package
Index (PyPI).
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 Think of pip as an app store for Python libraries. You use it to
search, install, and manage Python tools, just like downloading
apps on your phone.

When you use pip install , it:

• Connects to PyPI (Python Package Index) online.
• Downloads the specified library or package.
• Installs it into your Python environment.

To install packages, we use: pip install

Example: installing pandas to work on dataframe:
pip install pandas

Summary: Module, Package and Library

• Module: A single page.
• Package: A book containing multiple pages.
• Library: A book store with many books.

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 Most Used Python Libraries

Data Analytics, data visualization and ML

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 Web Scraping, web development and game development

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 Chapter - 22

File Handling in Python

• What is File Handling
• Open & Read a File
• Write & Append to a File
• Create a File
• Close a file
• Work on txt, csv, excel, pdf files

File handling in Python

File handling in Python allows you to read from and write to
files. This is important when you want to store data
permanently or work with large datasets. Python provides
built-in functions and methods to interact with files.

Steps for File Handling in Python:

• Opening a file
• Reading from a file
• Writing to a file
• Closing the file

Open a File
To perform any operation (read/write) on a file, you first need
to open the file using Python’s open() function.
Syntax: file_object = open('filename', 'mode’)
• 'filename': Name of the file (can be relative or absolute path).
• 'mode': Mode in which the file is opened (read, write, append,
etc.).

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 File Modes:
• 'r': Read (default mode). Opens the file for reading.
• 'w': Write. Opens the file for writing (if file doesn’t exist, it
creates one).
•'a': Append. Opens the file for appending (if file doesn’t exist, it
creates one).
• 'rb'/'wb': Read/Write in binary mode.
Example: Opening a file for reading file = open('example.txt', 'r')

Read from a File

Once a file is open, you can read from it using the following
methods:
• read(): Reads the entire content of the file.
• readline(): Reads one line from the file at a time.
• readlines(): Reads all lines into a list.
# Example: Reading the entire file
file = open('example.txt', 'r')
content = file.read()
print(content) file.close()
# Example: Reading one line at a time
file = open('example.txt', 'r')
line = file.readline()
print(line)
file.close()

Write to a File
To write to a file, you can use the write() or writelines() method:
• write(): Writes a string to the file.
• writelines(): Writes a list of strings.

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 # Example: Writing to a file (overwrites existing content)
file = open('example.txt', 'w')
file.write("Hello, world!")
file.close()
# Example: Appending to a file (add line to the end)
file = open('example.txt', 'a')
file.write("\nThis is an appended line.")
file.close()
# Close a file:
file.close()

Close a File
Instead of manually opening and closing a file, you can use the
with statement, which automatically handles closing the file
when the block of code is done.
# Example: Reading with with statement
with open('example.txt', 'r') as file:
content = file.read()
print(content)
In this case, you don’t need to call file.close(), because Python
automatically closes the file when the block is finished.

# Example: Using exception handling to close a file

try:
open('example.txt', 'r') as file:
content = file.read()
print(content)
finally:
file.close()

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 Working with Difft Format Files
# csv - Using csv module
import csv file = open('file.csv', mode='r')
reader = csv.reader(file)
# csv - Using pandas library
import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_csv('file.csv')
# excel - Using pandas library import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_excel('file.xlsx')
# PDF Using PyPDF2 library:
import PyPDF2
file = open('file.pdf', 'b')
pdf_reader = PyPDF2.PdfReader(file)

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