LECTURE NOTES

ON

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
IV B. Tech I semester (CMRIT-R22)

Prepared by,
Mr. S. Gopala Krishna, (Assistant Professor)

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CMR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(UGC - Autonomous)

Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUH, Accredited by NAAC with A Grade and NBA
Kandlakoya(V), Medchal (M), Ranga Reddy (DisT.), Hyderabad-501 401, Telangana State
Landline: 08418-200720; Fax: 08418-200240
Unit-III
Introduction: Brief history of Satellite systems; Principles, architecture, advantages, disadvantages,
applications and frequency bands used for satellite communication.
Orbital Mechanics, Look Angle determination, Orbital perturbations, Orbital determination, Launches
and Launch vehicles, Orbital effects in communication systems performance.
Unit–IV
SpaceCraft & Earth station Satellite subsystem: Attitude and Orbit control system, Telemetry,
Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring, Power Systems, Communication Subsystems, Satellite antennas,
Multiple Access: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Intermodulation, calculation of C/N.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Frame structure, Examples.
, Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Earth Station Technology: Introduction, Transmitters,
Receivers, Antennas, Tracking systems, Terrestrial Interface, Primary Power test methods.

Unit-V
Satellite Link Design: Basic transmission theory, system noise temperature and G/T ratio, Design of
down links, Uplink design, Design of satellite links for specified C/N, System design examples.
Earth Station Technology: Introduction, Transmitters, Receivers, Antennas, Tracking systems,
Terrestrial Interface, Primary Power test methods.

Textbooks:
1. Satellite Communications- Timothy Pratt, Charles Bostian and Jeremy Allnutt, WSE, Wiley
Publications, 2ndEdition,2003.

References:
1. Satellite Communications: Design Principles- M. Richharia, B S publications, 2nd Edition, 2003.
2. Satellite Communication- D.C Agarwal, Khanna Publications, 5thEdition.
 UNIT-1
COMMUNICATION SATELLITE
ORIGIN OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
The outer space has always fascinated people on the earth and communication
through space evolved as an offshoot of ideas for space travel. The earliest idea of using
artificial satellites for communications is found in a science fiction Brick Moon by Edward
Evert Hale, published in 1869-70. While the early fictional accounts of satellite and space
communications bear little resemblance to the technology as it exists today, they are of
significance since they represent the origins of the idea from which the technology eventually
evolved. In the area of satellite communications, the technology has been responsive to the
imaginative dreams. Hence it is also expected that technological innovations will lead the
evolution of satellite communications towards the visions of today.

Concept of Satellite Communications

Scientists from different countries conceived various ideas for communications
through space along with the technological breakthroughs in different fields of science. The
Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) was the first person to study space
travel as a science and in 1879 formulated his Rocket Equation, which is still used in the
design of modern rockets. He also wrote the first theoretical description of a man- made
satellite and noted the existence of a geosynchronous orbit. But he did not identify any
practical applications of geosynchronous orbit. The noted German Scientist and rocket
expert, Hermann Oberth, in 1923 proposed that the crews of orbiting rockets could
communicate with remote regions on earth by signalling with mirrors. In 1928, Austrian
Scientist Hermann Noordung suggested that the geostationary orbit might be a good location
for manned space vehicle. Russian Scientists in 1937 suggested that television images could
be relayed by bouncing them off the space vehicles. During 1942-1943, a series of articles by
George O Smith were published in Astounding Science Fictions concerning an artificial
planet, Venus Equilateral, which functioned as relay station between Venus and Earth Station
when direct communication was blocked by Sun. However, Arthur C. Clarke, an electronic
engineer and the well-known science fiction writer is generally credited with originating the
modern concept of Satellite Communications.
In 1945, Clarke, in his article `Extra Terrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations give
Worldwide Radio Coverage?’ published in Wireless World outlined the basic technical
considerations involved in the concept of satellite communications. Clarke proposed orbiting
space stations, which could be provided with receiving and transmitting equipment and could
act as a repeater to relay transmission between any two points of the hemisphere beneath. He
calculated that at an orbital radius of 42,000 km. the space station’s orbit would coincide with
the earth’s rotation on its axis and the space station would remain fixed as seen from any
point on the earth. He also pointed out that three such synchronous stations located 120
degrees apart above the equator could provide worldwide communications coverage. The
concept was later considered to be generating a billion dollar business in the area of
communications. However, Clarke did not patent the most commercially viable idea of
twentieth century as he thought satellites would not be technically and economically viable
until the next century.

Realization of concept to reality:

In October 1957, the first artificial satellite Sputnik -I was launched by former Soviet Russia in
the earth’s orbit and in 1963 Clark’s idea became a reality when the first geosynchronous
satellite SYNCOM was successfully launched by NASA.

The realization of the concept of satellite communications from an idea to reality has been
possible due to a large number of technological breakthroughs and practical realization of
devices and systems, which took place during and after the World War II. The pressures of
international military rivalry during cold war period were also able to a great extent to push
scientific and technological research and development far faster than it would have been
possible if applied for peaceful purposes.

The successful launching of communications satellite in earth’s orbit was possible because of
keen interests shown by specific groups of people along with the developments in diverse areas
of science and technology. Some of these factors, which are considered important in the
realization of satellite communications, are:
 Development of high power rocket technology and propulsion systems capable of
delivering satellites in high altitude orbits
 Scientific and military interests in Space Research
 Development of Transistors and miniaturization of electronic circuitry.
 Development of Solar Cells for providing sustained energy source for the satellite.
 Development of high-speed computers for calculating and tracking orbits.
 Government support in large-scale financial commitment to Space Technology
Development for Military, Scientific Experiments and Civilian Applications.
 International military rivalry among super powers.
 The psychological impact of Sputnik Challenge leading to long range program of
scientific research and development undertaken by US.

Before the transformation of the concept of communications by satellite to blue print

and subsequent development of the hardware took place it was necessary to make the scientific
communities convinced about the technical feasibility of such a system. In US J.R. Pierce, of
Bell Laboratories initiated this by promoting the idea of transoceanic satellite communications
within the scientific and technical communities. In 1955 Pierce in a paper entitled Orbital Radio
Relays proposed detailed technical plan for passive communications satellites, disregarding the
feasibility of constructing and placing satellites in orbit. He proposed three types of repeaters.
 Spheres at low altitudes
 A plane reflector
 An active repeater in 24 Hr. orbit

Pierce concluded his paper with a request to the scientific community to develop rockets
capable of launching communications satellite. Fortunately, scientific and military interest in
rocketry after World War II contributed in the development of a number of rockets like Atlas,
Jupiter and Thor rockets in US and different multistage rockets in former USSR that
ultimately made the launching of satellites in orbit possible.

On Oct. 4, 1957, Sputnik-1 was launched as part of Russia’s program for International
Geophysical Year. The launching of Sputnik marks the dawn of the space age and the world’s
introduction to artificial satellite. Mass of Sputnik was only 184 lbs. in an orbit of 560 miles
above the earth. It carried two radio transmitters at 20.005 MHz and 40.002 MHz. However
this space craft was far more than a scientific and technical achievement as it had a
tremendous psychological and political impact particularly on United States resulting in a
technological competition between United States and Russia, long term planning in Space
Research and establishment of NASA.

Four months after the launch of Sputnik, US Explorer-1 was launched in January 1958 by a
Jupiter rocket and the space race between Russia and US began.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND:

Person/Agency/
Category Year Activity
Country.
Geostationary Suggestion of Geostationary satellite
1945 A. Clark ( U.K )
concept communication feasibility.

J. Mofenson
1946 Detection of Lunar Echo by Radar
(U.S.A.)

Passive relaying of voice by moon J.H. Trexler

1954
reflection. ( U.S.A. )
Moon Reflection
Hawaii-Washington, D.C.
1960 U.S.A. Navy.
Communication by Moon Reflection.

Observation of signals from Sputnik -1 U.S.S.R., Japan

1957
Satellite. and others.

Tape-recorded voice transmission by

1958 U.S.A. Air Force.
Satellite SCORE.

Low altitude Meteorological facsimile Trans

1960 U.S.A. NASA
orbit. mission by Satellite Tiros-1.

Passive relaying of telephone and

1960 U.S.A. Army.
television by Satellite Echo-1.

1960 Delayed relaying of recorded voice by U.S.A. Army.

 Satellite Courier-1B.

Active transatlantic relaying of U.S.A., U.K.,

1962
communication by Satellite Telstar-1. France.

Communication between manned

1962 Satellites Vostok-3 and 4; Space U.S.S.R.
television transmission.

Scatter communication by tiny

1963 needles in Orbit. U.S.A. MIT.
( West Ford Project 6 )

Active transpacific relaying of U.S.A. NASA,

1963
communication by Satellite Relay 1. Japan.

USA-Europe-Africa communication by
1963 U.S.A. NASA
Satellite Syncom 2.

Olympic Games television relaying by U.S.A., NASA

Synchronous 1964
Satellite. Satellite Syncom 3 Japan.

Commercial Communication (Semi-

1965 INTELSAT.
experimental) by Satellite Early Bird.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS

⚫
A communication satellite is an orbiting artificial earth satellite that receives a
communications signal from a transmitting ground station, amplifies and possibly
processes it, then transmits it back to the earth for reception by one or more
receiving ground stations.
⚫
Communications information neither originates nor terminates at the satellite itself.
The satellite is an active transmission relay, similar in function to relay towers used
in terrestrial microwave communications.

⚫
The commercial satellite communications industry has its beginnings in the mid-
1960s, and in less than 50 years has progressed from an alternative exotic
technology to a mainstream transmission technology, which is pervasive in all
elements of the global telecommunications infrastructure. Today’s communications
satellites offer extensive capabilities in applications involving data, voice, and
video, with services provided to fixed, broadcast, mobile, personal communications,
and private networks users.
Evolution of Satellite Communication:
⚫
During early 1950s, both passive and active satellites were considered for the purpose of
communications over a large distance.
⚫ in the early years of satellite
Passive satellites though successfully used
communications, with the advancement in technology active satellites have
completely replaced the passive satellites.

Passive Satellites:
⚫
A satellite that only reflects signals from one Earth station to another or from several
Earth stations to several others.
⚫
It reflects the incident electromagnetic radiation without any modification or
⚫ amplification.
It can't generate power, they simply reflect the incident power.
⚫
The first artificial passive satellite Echo-I of NASA was launched in August 1960.

Disadvantages:
⚫
Earth Stations required high power to transmit signals.
⚫
Large Earth Stations with tracking facilities were expensive.
⚫
A global system would have required a large number of passive satellites accessed
randomly by different users.
⚫ Control of satellites not possible from ground.
⚫
The large attenuation of the signal while traveling the large distance between the
transmitter and the receiver via the satellite was one of the most serious problems.
Active Satellites:
⚫
In active satellites, it amplifies or modifies and retransmits the signal received from
⚫ the earth.
Satellites which can transmit power are called active satellite.
⚫
Have several advantages over the passive satellites.
⚫
Require lower power earth station.
⚫
Not open to random use.
⚫ Directly controlled by operators from ground.
Disadvantages:
⚫
Requirement of larger and powerful rockets to launch heavier satellites in orbit.
⚫
Requirement of on-board power supply.
⚫
Interruption of service due to failure of electronics components

Two major elements of Satellite Communications Systems are:

The satellite communications portion is broken down into two areas or segments: the space
segment and the ground (or earth) segment.

General architecture of Satellite Communication

Space Segment:
The elements of the space segment of a communications satellite system are shown in
Figure. The space segment includes the satellite (or satellites) in orbit in the system, and the
ground station that provides the operational control of the satellite(s) in orbit. The ground
station is variously referred to as the Tracking, Telemetry, Command (TT&C) or the
Tracking, Telemetry, Command and Monitoring (TTC&M) station. The TTC&M station
provides essential spacecraft management and control functions to keep the satellite operating
safely in orbit. The TTC&M links between the spacecraft and the ground are usually separate
from the user communications links. TTC&M links may operate in the same frequency bands
or in other bands. TTC&M is most often accomplished through a separate earth terminal
facility specifically designed for the complex operations required to maintain a spacecraft in
orbit.

Ground segment:
The ground segment of the communications satellite system consists of the earth surface area
based terminals that utilize the communications capabilities of the Space Segment. TTC&M
ground stations are not included in the ground segment. The ground segment terminals
consist of three basic types:
• fixed (in-place) terminals;
• transportable terminals;
• mobile terminals.

Fixed terminals are designed to access the satellite while fixed in-place on the ground. They
may be providing different types of services, but they are defined by the fact that they are not
moving while communicating with the satellite. Examples of fixed terminals are small
terminals used in private networks (VSATs), or terminals mounted on residence buildings
used to receive broadcast satellite signals. Transportable terminals are designed to be
movable, but once on location remain fixed during transmissions to the satellite. Examples of
the transportable terminal are satellite news gathering (SGN) trucks, which move to
locations, stop in place, and then deploy an antenna to establish links to the satellite.
Mobile terminals are designed to communicate with the satellite while in motion. They are
further defined as land mobile, aeronautical mobile, or maritime mobile, depending on their
locations on or near the earth surface.

Satellite Control Centre function:

⚫
Tracking of the satellite
⚫
Receiving data
⚫
Eclipse management of satellite
⚫
Commanding the Satellite for station keeping.
⚫
Determining Orbital parameters from Tracking and Ranging data
⚫ Switching ON/OFF of different subsystems as per the operational requirements

SATELLITE ORBITS
Orbit: The path a Satellite follows around a planet is defined as an orbit.
⚫
Satellite Orbits are classified in two broad categories :

Non-Geostationary Orbit (NGSO)

Geo Stationary Orbit (GSO)

⚫
Early ventures with satellite communications used satellites in Non-geostationary low
earth orbits due to the technical limitations of the launch vehicles in placing satellites in
higher orbits.

Disadvantages of NGSO
⚫
Complex problem of transferring signal from one satellite to another.
⚫
Less expected life of satellites at NGSO.
⚫
Requires frequent replacement of satellites compared to satellite in GSO
Geo Stationary Orbit (GSO)
⚫
There is only one geostationary orbit possible around the earth
⚫
Lying on the earth’s equatorial plane.
⚫
The satellite orbiting at the same speed as the rotational speed of the earth on its axis.
Advantages:
⚫
Simple ground station tracking.
⚫
Nearly constant range
⚫ Very small frequency shift
Disadvantages:
⚫
Transmission delay of the order of 250 msec.
⚫
Large free space loss
⚫
No polar coverage

Note: A geostationary orbit is a type of geosynchronous orbit. A geosynchronous orbit can be

any orbit, like with an elliptical path, that has a period equal to the Earth’s rotational period,
whereas a geostationary orbit has to be a circular orbit and that too placed above the equator.

Satellite orbits in terms of the orbital height:

⚫
According to distance from earth:
⚫
Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO)
⚫
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
⚫
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

Geostationary or geosynchronous earth orbit (GEO)

GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth. Looking from a fixed point from
Earth, these satellites appear to be stationary. These satellites are placed in the space in such a
way that only three satellites are sufficient to provide connection throughout the surface of
the Earth (that is; their footprint is covering almost 1/3rd of the Earth). The orbit of these
satellites is circular.
There are three conditions which lead to geostationary satellites. Lifetime expectancy of these
satellites is 15 years.
1) The satellite should be placed 35,786 kms (approximated to 36,000 kms) above the surface
of the earth.
2) These satellites must travel in the rotational speed of earth, and in the direction of motion
of earth, that is eastward.
0
3) The inclination of satellite with respect to earth must be 0 .

Geostationary satellite in practical is termed as geosynchronous as there are multiple factors

which make these satellites shift from the ideal geostationary condition.

1) Gravitational pull of sun and moon makes these satellites deviate from their orbit. Over the
period of time, they go through a drag. (Earth’s gravitational force has no effect on these
satellites due to their distance from the surface of the Earth.)
2) These satellites experience the centrifugal force due to the rotation of Earth, making them
deviate from their orbit.
3) The non-circular shape of the earth leads to continuous adjustment of speed of satellite
from the earth station.

These satellites are used for TV and radio broadcast, weather forecast and also, these
satellites are operating as backbones for the telephone networks.

Disadvantages of GEO: Northern or southern regions of the Earth (poles) have more
problems receiving these satellites due to the low elevation above a latitude of 60°, i.e., larger
antennas are needed in this case. Shading of the signals is seen in cities due to high buildings
and the low elevation further away from the equator limit transmission quality. The transmit
power needed is relatively high which causes problems for battery powered devices. These
satellites cannot be used for small mobile phones. The biggest problem for voice and also
data communication is the high latency as without having any handovers, the signal has to at
least travel 72,000 kms. Due to the large footprint, either frequencies cannot be reused or the
GEO satellite needs special antennas focusing on a smaller footprint. Transferring a GEO
into orbit is very expensive.
GEO: 35,786 km above the earth
Advantages Of GEO
⚫
Minimal Doppler shift
⚫
These factors make it ideal for satellite broadcast and other multipoint applications
⚫
GEO satellites have a 24 hour view of a particular area.
⚫
A GEO satellite’s distance from earth gives it a large coverage area, almost a fourth of the
earth’s surface.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites:

MEOs can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOs, both in terms of their
orbit and due to their advantages and disadvantages. Using orbits around 20,000 km, the
system only requires a dozen satellites which is more than a GEO system, but much less than
a LEO system. These satellites move more slowly relative to the earth’s rotation allowing a
simpler system design (satellite periods are about six hours). Depending on the inclination, a
MEO can cover larger populations, so requiring fewer handovers.

Disadvantages: Again, due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about 70–80
ms. the satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for smaller footprints.

MEO: 8,000-20,000 km above the earth

Advantages Of MEO
• A MEO satellite’s longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer
satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network.
Disadvantages Of MEO
• A MEO satellite’s distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO
satellite, though not as bad as a GEO satellite.

MEO satellites
The GPS constellation calls for 24 satellites to be distributed equally among six circular
orbital planes
 GPS Constellation

Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites:

These satellites are placed 500-1500 kms above the surface of the earth. As LEOs circulate
on a lower orbit, hence they exhibit a much shorter period that is 95 to 120 minutes. LEO
systems try to ensure a high elevation for every spot on earth to provide a high quality
communication link. Each LEO satellite will only be visible from the earth for around ten
minutes.

Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s can be enough
for voice communication. LEOs even provide this bandwidth for mobile terminals with
Omni-directional antennas using low transmit power in the range of 1W. The delay for
packets delivered via a LEO is relatively low (approx 10 ms). The delay is comparable to
long-distance wired connections (about 5–10 ms). Smaller footprints of LEOs allow for better
frequency reuse, similar to the concepts used for cellular networks. LEOs can provide a much
higher elevation in Polar Regions and so better global coverage.

These satellites are mainly used in remote sensing an providing mobile communication
services (due to lower latency).

Disadvantages: The biggest problem of the LEO concept is the need for many satellites if
global coverage is to be reached. Several concepts involve 50–200 or even more satellites in
orbit. The short time of visibility with a high elevation requires additional mechanisms for
connection handover between different satellites. The high number of satellites combined
with the fast movements resulting in a high complexity of the whole satellite system. One
general problem of LEOs is the short lifetime of about five to eight years due to atmospheric
drag and radiation from the inner Van Allen belt1. Assuming 48 satellites and a lifetime of
eight years, a new satellite would be needed every two months. The low latency via a single
LEO is only half of the story. Other factors are the need for routing of data packets from
satellite to if a user wants to communicate around the world. Due to the large footprint, a
GEO typically does not need this type of routing, as senders and receivers are most likely in
the same footprint.
 LEO: 500-2,000 km above the earth

The Iridium system shown below has 66 satellites in six LEO orbits, each at an altitude of
750 km.

Iridium is designed to provide direct worldwide voice and data communication using
handheld terminals, a service similar to cellular telephony but on a global scale.

Advantages Of LEO
• A LEO satellite’s proximity to earth compared to a GEO satellite gives it a better
signal strength and less of a time delay, which makes it better for point to point
communication.
• A LEO satellite’s smaller area of coverage is less and waste of bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of LEO
• A network of LEO satellites is needed, which can be costly
• LEO satellites have to compensate for Doppler shifts cause by their relative
movement.
• Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites, causing gradual orbital deterioration.
Advantages Of Satellite Communication
⚫
Universal: Satellite communications are available virtually everywhere.
⚫ Versatile: Satellites can support all of today's communications needs.
⚫
Reliable: Satellite is a proven medium for supporting a company's communications
needs.
⚫ Seamless: Satellite's inherent strength as a broadcast medium makes it perfect.
⚫
Fast: Since satellite networks can be set up quickly, companies can be fast-to-market
with new services.
⚫ Flexible
⚫
Expandable
⚫
High Quality
⚫
Quick Provision of Services
⚫
Mobile and Emergency Communication
⚫
Suitable for both Digital and Analog Transmission

FREQUENCY ALLOCATIONS FOR SATELLITE SERVICES

Allocation of frequencies to satellite services s a complicated process which requires
international coordination and planning. This is done as per the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU). To implement this frequency planning, the world is
divided into three regions:

Region1: Europe, Africa and Mongolia

Region 2: North and South America and Greenland
Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia and south-west Pacific.

Within these regions, he frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services. Some of
them are listed below.

 Fixed satellite service: Provides Links for existing Telephone Networks Used for
transmitting television signals to cable companies

 Broadcasting satellite service: Provides Direct Broadcast to homes. E.g. Live

Cricket matches etc

 Mobile satellite services: This includes services for: Land Mobile Maritime Mobile
Aeronautical mobile
 Navigational satellite services : Include Global Positioning systems
 Meteorological satellite services: They are often used to perform Search and Rescue
service
Below are the frequencies allocated to these satellites:
Frequency Band (GHZ) Designations:
VHF: 01-0.3
UHF: 0.3-1.0
L-band: 1.0-2.0
S-band: 2.0-4.0
C-band: 4.0-8.0
X-band: 8.0-12.0
Ku-band: 12.0-18.0 (Ku is Under K Band)
Ka-band: 18.0-27.0 (Ka is Above K Band)
V-band: 40.0-75.0
W-band: 75-110
Mm-band: 110-300
μm-band: 300-3000
Based on the satellite service, following are the frequencies allocated to the satellites:

Frequency Band (GHZ) Designations:

VHF: 01-0.3 ---Mobile & Navigational Satellite Services

L-band: 1.0-2.0 --- Mobile & Navigational Satellite Services
C-band: 4.0-8.0 --- Fixed Satellite Service
Ku-band: 12.0-18.0 --- Direct Broadcast Satellite Services

APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

1) Weather Forecasting: Certain satellites are specifically designed to monitor the climatic
conditions of earth. They continuously monitor the assigned areas of earth and predict the
weather conditions of that region. This is done by taking images of earth from the satellite.
These images are transferred using assigned radio frequency to the earth station. (Earth
Station: it’s a radio station located on the earth and used for relaying signals from satellites.)
These satellites are exceptionally useful in predicting disasters like hurricanes, and monitor
the changes in the Earth's vegetation, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields.
2) Radio and TV Broadcast: These dedicated satellites are responsible for making 100s of
channels across the globe available for everyone. They are also responsible for broadcasting
live matches, news, world-wide radio services. These satellites require a 30-40 cm sized dish
to make these channels available globally.
3) Military Satellites: These satellites are often used for gathering intelligence, as a
communications satellite used for military purposes, or as a military weapon. A satellite by
itself is neither military nor civil. It is the kind of payload it carries that enables one to arrive
at a decision regarding its military or civilian character.
4) Navigation Satellites: The system allows for precise localization world-wide, and with
some additional techniques, the precision is in the range of some meters. Ships and aircraft
rely on GPS as an addition to traditional navigation systems. Many vehicles come with
installed GPS receivers. This system is also used, e.g., for fleet management of trucks or for
vehicle localization in case of theft.
5) Global Telephone: One of the first applications of satellites for communication was the
establishment of international telephone backbones. Instead of using cables it was sometimes
faster to launch a new satellite. But, fiber optic cables are still replacing satellite
communication across long distance as in fiber optic cable, light is used instead of radio
frequency, hence making the communication much faster (and of course, reducing the delay
caused due to the amount of distance a signal needs to travel before reaching the destination.).
Using satellites, to typically reach a distance approximately 10,000 kms away, the signal
needs to travel almost 72,000 kms, that is, sending data from ground to satellite and (mostly)
from satellite to another location on earth. This cause’s substantial amount of delay and this
delay becomes more prominent for users during voice calls.
6) Connecting Remote Areas: Due to their geographical location many places all over the
world do not have direct wired connection to the telephone network or the internet (e.g.,
researchers on Antarctica) or because of the current state of the infrastructure of a country.
Here the satellite provides a complete coverage and (generally) there is one satellite always
present across a horizon.
7) Global Mobile Communication: The basic purpose of satellites for mobile
communication is to extend the area of coverage. Cellular phone systems, such as AMPS and
GSM (and their successors) do not cover all parts of a country. Areas that are not covered
usually have low population where it is too expensive to install a base station. With the
integration of satellite communication, however, the mobile phone can switch to satellites
offering world-wide connectivity to a customer. Satellites cover a certain area on the earth.
This area is termed as a „footprint‟ of that satellite. Within the footprint, communication with
that satellite is possible for mobile users. These users communicate using a Mobile-User-Link
(MUL). The base-stations communicate with satellites using a Gateway-Link (GWL).
Sometimes it becomes necessary for satellite to create a communication link between users
belonging to two different footprints. Here the satellites send signals to each other and this is
done using Inter-Satellite-Link (ISL).
FUTURE OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
Future communication satellites will have

• More onboard processing capabilities,

• More power, and
• Larger-aperture antennas that will enable satellites to handle more bandwidth.
• The demand for more bandwidth will ensure the long-term viability of the
commercial satellite industry well into the 21st century.

Conclusion:
By going through the above slides we came to know that satellite is mostly responsible for:
⚫
Telecommunication transmission
⚫
Reception of television signals
⚫
Whether forecasting
Which are very important in our daily life.
ORBITAL MECHANICS AND LAUNCHERS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
⚫
To achieve a stable orbit around the earth, a spacecraft must first be beyond the bulk
of the earth’s atmosphere, i.e., in what is popularly called space.
⚫
According to Newton's law of motion F=ma. Where a = acceleration, F= force acting
on the object and m= mass of the object. It helps us understand the motion of satellite
in a stable orbit.(neglecting any drag or other perturbing forces).
⚫
(F=ma) states that the force acting on a body is equal to the mass of the body
multiplied by the resulting acceleration of the body.
⚫ Thus, for a given force, the lighter the mass of the body, the higher the acceleration
will be.
⚫
When in a stable orbit, there are two main forces acting on a satellite: a centrifugal
force due to the kinetic energy of the satellite, which attempts to fling the satellite into
a higher orbit, and a centripetal force due to gravitational attraction of the planet about
which the satellite is orbiting, which attempts to pull the satellite towards the planet.
⚫ If these two forces are equal the satellite remains in a stable orbit.
Forces involved in orbital mechanics

There are two relevant forces involved in this problem

1. Gravitational force= attraction between any two objects, given by

2. Centrifugal force=an outward-directed force that normally balances the inward-

directed centripetal force
2
The standard acceleration due to gravity at the earth surface is 981 cm/s . The value
decreases with height above the earth’s surface. The acceleration, a, due to gravity at a
distance r from the centre of the earth is
2 2
a=µ/r km/ s
Where the constant µ is the product of the universal gravitational constant G and the mass
of the earth ME. 5 3 2
The product GME is called kepler’s constant and has the value 3.98 x 10 km /s .
-11 2 2
The universal gravitational constant is G=6.672x 10 Nm /kg .
 24
The mass of the earth ME =5.97 x 10 kg.
Since fore= mass x acceleration, the centripetal force acting on the satellite, Fin is given by
2
Fin= m x (µ/r )
2
=m x (G ME /r )
In a similar fashion, the centrifugal acceleration is given by
2
a=v /r
Which will give the centrifugal force, Fout as
2
Fout=m x(v /r )
If the forces of the satellite are balanced Fin=Fout
2 2
m x (µ/r )=m x(v /r )
Hence the velocity v of the satellite in a circular orbit is given by
1/2
v=(µ/r)
If the orbit is circular, the distance traveled by a satellite in one orbit around a planet is 2∏r ,
where r is the radius of the orbit from the satellite to the center of the planet. Since distance
divided by velocity equals time to travel the distance, the period of satellite’s orbit, T, will be
1/2
T= (2∏r )/v = (2∏r )/[(µ/r) ]
3/2 1/2
T=(2∏r )/(µ )
Using standard mathematical procedures we can develop an equation for the radius of the
satellite’s orbit, r, namely

Kepler’s Laws
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion apply to any two bodies in space that interact through
gravitation. The laws of motion are described through three fundamental principles.

Kepler’s First Law, as it applies to artificial satellite orbits, can be simply stated as follows:
‘The path followed by a satellite around the earth will be an ellipse, with the center of mass
of earth as one of the two foci of the ellipse.’ This is shown in Figure:
If no other forces are acting on the satellite, either intentionally by orbit control or
unintentionally as in gravity forces from other bodies, the satellite will eventually settle in an
elliptical orbit, with the earth as one of the foci of the ellipse. The ‘size’ of the ellipse will
depend on satellite mass and its angular velocity.

Kepler’s Second Law can likewise be simply stated as follows: ‘for equal time intervals, the
satellite sweeps out equal areas in the orbital plane.’ Figure 2.3 demonstrates this concept.

The shaded area A1 shows the area swept out in the orbital plane by the orbiting
satellite in a one hour time period at a location near the earth. Kepler’s second law states that
the area swept out by any other one hour time period in the orbit will also sweep out an area
equal to A1. For example, the area swept out by the satellite in a one hour period around the
point farthest from the earth (the orbit’s apogee), labeled A2 on the figure, will be equal to
A1, i.e.: A1 =A2.
This result also shows that the satellite orbital velocity is not constant; the satellite is moving
much faster at locations near the earth, and slows down as it approaches apogee. This factor
will be discussed in more detail later when specific satellite orbit types are introduced.

Kepler’s Third Law is as follows: ‘the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional to
the cube of the mean distance between the two bodies.’ This is quantified as follows:

Where T=orbital period in s; a=distance between the two bodies, in km;

µ=Kepler’s Constant =3.986004×105 km3/s2. If the orbit is circular,
then a=r, and

2/3
This demonstrates an important result: Orbit Radius = [Constant] × (Orbit Period)

Under this condition, a specific orbit period is determined only by proper selection of the
orbit radius. This allows the satellite designer to select orbit periods that best meet particular
application requirements by locating the satellite at the proper orbit altitude. The altitudes
required to obtain a specific number of repeatable ground traces with a circular orbit are
listed in Table 2.1.
Orbital Elements:
Apogee: A point for a satellite farthest from the Earth. It is denoted as ha.
Perigee: A point for a satellite closest from the Earth. It is denoted as hp.
Line of Apsides: Line joining perigee and apogee through centre of the Earth. It is the major
axis of the orbit. One-half of this line’s length is the semi-major axis equivalents to satellite’s
mean distance from the Earth.
Ascending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from north to
south.
Descending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to
north.
Inclination: the angle between the orbital plane and the Earth’s equatorial plane. Its
measured at the ascending node from the equator to the orbit, going from East to North. Also,
this angle is commonly denoted as i.
Line of Nodes: the line joining the ascending and descending nodes through the centre of
Earth.
Prograde Orbit: an orbit in which satellite 0moves 0in the same direction as the Earth’s
rotation. Its inclination is always between 0 to 90 Many satellites follow this path as
.
Earth’s velocity makes it easier to lunch these satellites.
Retrograde Orbit: an orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction counter to the
Earth’s rotation.
Argument of Perigee: An angle from the point of perigee measure in the orbital plane at the
Earth’s centre, in the direction of the satellite motion.
Right ascension of ascending node: The definition of an orbit in space, the position of
ascending node is specified. But as the Earth spins, the longitude of ascending node changes
and cannot be used for reference. Thus for practical determination of an orbit, the longitude
and time of crossing the ascending node is used. For absolute measurement, a fixed reference
point in space is required. It could also be defined as “right ascension of the ascending node;
right ascension is the angular position measured eastward along the celestial equator from
the vernal equinox vector to the hour circle of the object”.
Mean anamoly: It gives the average value to the angular position of the satellite with
reference to the perigee.
True anamoly: It is the angle from point of perigee to the satellite’s position, measure at the
Earth’s centre.
 Z

Satellite
perigee



0 
Vernal equator
equinox Node

Greenwich
i Inclination
 Right Ascension of ascending
node  Argument of perigee  True
anomaly

Prograde and Retrograde orbits

Argument of Perigee and Right ascension of ascending node

Orbital Elements Following are the 6 elements of the Keplerian Element set commonly
known as orbital elements.
Semi-Major axis (a)
Eccentricity (e)
They give the shape (of ellipse) to the satellite’s orbit.
3. Mean anomaly (M0)
It denotes the position of a satellite in its orbit at a given reference time.
4. Argument of Perigee
It gives the rotation of the orbit’s perigee point relative to the orbit‟s nodes in the earth‟s
equatorial plane.
Inclination
Right ascension of ascending node

They relate the orbital plane’s position to the Earth. As the equatorial bulge causes a slow
variation in argument of perigee and right ascension of ascending node, and because other
perturbing forces may alter the orbital elements slightly, the values are specified for the
reference time or epoch.

LOOK ANGLE DETERMINATION

The look angles for the ground station antenna are Azimuth and Elevation angles. They are
required at the antenna so that it points directly at the satellite. Look angles are calculated by
considering the elliptical orbit. These angles change in order to track the satellite.

For geostationary orbit, these angels values does not change as the satellites are stationary
with respect to earth. Thus large earth stations are used for commercial communications,
these antennas beamwidth is very narrow and the tracking mechanism is required to
compensate for the movement of the satellite about the nominal geostationary position.

For home antennas, antenna beamwidth is quite broad and hence no tracking is essential. This
leads to a fixed position for these antennas.
Sub satellite point: The point, on the earth’s surface of intersection between a line frim the
earth’s center to the satellite.
The following information is needed to determine the look angles of geostationary orbit.
Earth Station Latitude
Earth Station Longitude
Sub-Satellite Point’s Longitude
ES: Position of Earth Station
SS: Sub-Satellite Point
S: Satellite
Range from ES to S
Angle to be determined
Geometry of Elevation Angle

Satellite Coordinates
⚫
SUB-SATELLITE POINT
Latitude Ls
Longitude ls
⚫ EARTH STATION LOCATION
Latitude Le
Longitude le
Calculate γ, Angle at earth center
Central Angle

Elevation Angle Calculation

Azimuth Angle Calculation for GEO Satellites

⚫
SUB-SATELLITE POINT
Equatorial plane, Latitude Ls = 00
Longitude ls
⚫ EARTH STATION LOCATION
Latitude Le
Longitude le
Example for Look Angle Calculation of a GEO satellite
 o
El=5.85

NOTE
⚫
The earth station can see a satellite over a geostationary arc bounded by
+- (81.30) about the earth station’s longitude.
ORBITAL PERTURBATIONS
⚫
Theoretically, an orbit described by Kepler is ideal as Earth is considered to be a
perfect sphere and the force acting around the Earth is the centrifugal force. This force
is supposed to balance the gravitational pull of the earth.
⚫
In reality, other forces also play an important role and affect the motion of the
satellite. These forces are the gravitational forces of Sun and Moon along with the
atmospheric drag.
⚫
Effect of Sun and Moon is more pronounced on geostationary earth satellites where as
the atmospheric drag effect is more pronounced for low earth orbit satellites.
⚫
As the shape of Earth is not a perfect sphere, it causes some variations in the path
followed by the satellites around the primary. As the Earth is bulging from the
equatorial belt, and keeping in mind that an orbit is not a physical entity, and it is the
forces resulting from an oblate Earth which act on the satellite produce a change in
the orbital parameters.
⚫
This causes the satellite to drift as a result of regression of the nodes and the latitude
of the point of perigee (point closest to the Earth). This leads to rotation of the line of
apsides. As the orbit itself is moving with respect to the Earth, the resultant changes
are seen in the values of argument of perigee and right ascension of ascending node.
⚫
Due to the non-spherical shape of Earth, one more effect called as the “Satellite
Graveyard” is seen. The non-spherical shape leads to the small value of eccentricity at
the equatorial plane. This causes a gravity gradient on GEO satellite and makes them
drift to one of the two stable points which coincide with minor axis of the equatorial
ellipse.
⚫
Working satellites are made to drift back to their position but out-of-service satellites
are eventually drifted to these points, and making that point a Satellite Graveyard.

Atmospheric Drag
⚫
For Low Earth orbiting satellites, the effect of atmospheric drag is more pronounces.
The impact of this drag is maximum at the point of perigee. Drag (pull towards the
Earth) has an effect on velocity of Satellite (velocity reduces).
⚫
This causes the satellite to not reach the apogee height successive revolutions. This
leads to a change in value of semi-major axis and eccentricity. Satellites in service are
maneuvered by the earth station back to their original orbital position.

ORBIT DETERMINATION
Orbit determination requires that sufficient measurements be made to determine uniquely the
six orbital elements needed to calculate the future of the satellite, and hence calculate the
required changes that need to be made to the orbit to keep it within the nominal orbital
location. The control earth stations used to measure the angular position of the satellites also
carryout range measurements using unique time stamps in the telemetry stream or
communication carrier. These earth stations generally referred to as the TTC&M(telemetry
tracking command and monitoring) stations of the satellite network.

LAUNCHES AND LAUNCH VEHICLES

A satellite cannot be placed into a stable orbit unless two parameters that are uniquely
coupled together the velocity vector and the orbital height are simultaneously correct. There
is little point in orbiting the correct height and not having the appropriate velocity component
in the correct direction to achieve the desired orbit. A geostationary satellite for example
must be in an orbit at height 35,786.03km above the surface of the earth with an inclination
of zero degrees an ellipticity of zero, and a velocity of 3074.7m/s tangential to the earth in the
plane of the orbit, which is the earths equatorial plane. The further out from the earth the orbit
is greater the energy required from the launch vehicle to reach that orbit. In any earth satellite
launch, the largest fraction of the energy expanded by the rocket is used to accelerate the
vehicle from rest until it is about 20miles (32 km) above the earth.

To make the most efficient use of the fuel, it is common to shed excess mass from the
launcher as it moves upward on launch; this is called staging.

Most launch vehicles have multiple stage and as each stage is completed that portion of the
launcher is expended until the final stage places the satellite into the desired trajectory. Hence
the term:expandable lauch vehicle(ELV). The space shuttle , called the space transportation
system (STS)by NASA, is partially reusable. The solid rocket boosters are recovered and
refurbished for future mission and the shuttle vehicle itself is flown back to earth for
refurbishment and reuse. Hence the term:reusable launch vehicle(RLV) for such launchers.
Launch vehicle selection factor
⚫
Price/cost
⚫
Reliability-Recent launch success/failure history
⚫
Dependable launch schedule- Urgency of the customer
⚫
Performance
⚫
Spacecraft fit
⚫
Safety issues
⚫
Launch site location
⚫
Availability-launch site; vehicle; schedule;
⚫
Market conditions-what the market will bear

LAUNCHING ORBITS
Low Earth Orbiting satellites are directly injected into their orbits. This cannot be done incase of
GEOs as they have to be positioned 36,000kms above the Earth‟s surface. Launch vehicles are
hence used to set these satellites in their orbits. These vehicles are reusable. They are also known
as „Space Transportation System‟ (STS).

When the orbital altitude is greater than 1,200 km it becomes expensive to directly inject the
satellite in its orbit. For this purpose, a satellite must be placed in to a transfer orbit between the
initial lower orbit and destination orbit. The transfer orbit is commonly known as *Hohmann-
Transfer Orbit.

(*About Hohmann Transfer Orbit: This manoeuvre is named for the German civil engineer who
first proposed it, Walter Hohmann, who was born in 1880. He didn't work in rocketry
professionally (and wasn't associated with military rocketry), but was a key member of
Germany's pioneering Society for Space Travel that included people such as Willy Ley,
Hermann, and Werner von Braun. He published his concept of how to transfer between orbits in
his 1925 book, The Attainability of Celestial Bodies.)
The transfer orbit is selected to minimize the energy required for the transfer. This orbit forms a
tangent to the low attitude orbit at the point of its perigee and tangent to high altitude orbit at the
point of its apogee.

Figure: Orbit Transfer positions

The rocket injects the satellite with the required thrust** into the transfer orbit. With the STS,
the satellite carries a perigee kick motor*** which imparts the required thrust to inject the
satellite in its transfer orbit. Similarly, an apogee kick motor (AKM) is used to inject the
satellite in its destination orbit.

Generally it takes 1-2 months for the satellite to become fully functional. The Earth Station
performs the Telemetry Tracking and Command**** function to control the satellite transits
and functionalities.

(**Thrust: It is a reaction force described quantitatively by Newton's second and third laws.
When a system expels or accelerates mass in one direction the accelerated mass will cause a
force of equal magnitude but opposite direction on that system.)
(***Kick Motor refers to a rocket motor that is regularly employed on artificial satellites
destined for a geostationary orbit. As the vast majority of geostationary satellite launches are
carried out from spaceports at a significant distance away from Earth's equator, the carrier
rocket would only be able to launch the satellite into an elliptical orbit of maximum apogee
35,784-kilometres and with a non-zero inclination approximately equal to the latitude of the
launch site.) (****TT&C: it‟s a sub-system where the functions performed by the satellite
control network to maintain health and status, measure specific mission parameters and
processing over time a sequence of these measurement to refine parameter knowledge, and
transmit mission commands to the satellite. Detailed study of TT&C in the upcoming units.)
It is better to launch rockets closer to the equator because the Earth rotates at a greater speed
here than that at either pole. This extra speed at the equator means a rocket needs less thrust
(and therefore less fuel) to launch into orbit. In addition, launching at the equator provides an
additional 1,036 mph (1,667 km/h) of speed once the vehicle reaches orbit. This speed bonus
means the vehicle needs less fuel, and that freed space can be used to carry more pay load.

Figure : Hohmann Transfer Orbit

 Figure : Launching stages of a GEO (example INTELSAT)

ORBITAL EFFECTS IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

PERFORMANCE

There are a number of perbuting forces that cause an orbit to depart from ideal Keplerian
orbit. The most effecting ones are gravitational fields of sun and moon, non-spherical shape
of the Earth, reaction of the satellite itself to motor movements within the satellites.

Thus the earth station keeps manoeuvring the satellite to maintain its position. Within a set of
nominal geostationary coordinates. Thus the exact GEO is not attainable in practice and the
orbital parameters vary with time. Hence these satellites are called “Geosynchronous”
satellites or “Near-Geostationary satellites”.

Doppler Effect
To a stationary observer, the frequency of a moving radio transmitter varies with the
transmitter’s velocity relative to the observer. If the true transmitter frequency (i.e., the
frequency that the transmitter would send when at rest) is fT, the received frequency fR is
higher than fT when the transmitter is moving toward the receiver and lower than fT when the
transmitter is moving away from the receiver.
Range variations
Even with the best station keeping systems available for geostationary satellites, the position
of a satellite with respect to earth exhibits a cyclic daily variation. The variation in position
will lead to a variation in range between the satellite and user terminals. If time division
multiple access(TDMA) is being used, careful attention must be paid to the timing of the
frames within the TDMA bursts so that the individual user frames arrive at the satellite in the
correct sequence and at the correct time.

Earth Eclipse of A Satellite

It occurs when Earth‟s equatorial plane coincides with the plane f he Earth‟s orbit around the
sun. Near the time of spring and autumnal equinoxes, when the sun is crossing the equator,
the satellite passes into sun‟s shadow. This happens for some duration of time every day.

These eclipses begin 23 days before the equinox and end 23 days after the equinox. They last
for almost 10 minutes at the beginning and end of equinox and increase for a maximum
period of 72 minutes at a full eclipse. The solar cells of the satellite become non-functional
during the eclipse period and the satellite is made to operate with the help of power supplied
from the batteries.

A satellite will have the eclipse duration symmetric around the time t=Satellite Longitude/15
• 12 hours. A satellite at Greenwich longitude 0 will have the eclipse duration symmetric
around 0/15 UTC +12hours = 00:00 UTC. The eclipse will happen at night but for satellites
in the east it will happen late evening local time. For satellites in the west eclipse will happen
in the early morning hour‟s local time. An earth caused eclipse will normally not happen
during peak viewing hours if the satellite is located near the longitude of the coverage area.
Modern satellites are well equipped with batteries for operation during eclipse.

Figure : A satellite east of the earth station enters eclipse during daylight busy) hours at the earth station. A
Satellite west of earth station enters eclipse during night and early morning hours (non busy time).

Sun Transit Outage

Sun transit outage is an interruption in or distortion of geostationary satellite signals caused
by interference from solar radiation. Sun appears to be an extremely noisy source which
completely blanks out the signal from satellite. This effect lasts for 6 days around the
equinoxes. They occur for a maximum period of 10 minutes.
Generally, sun outages occur in February, March, September and October, that is, around the
time of the equinoxes. At these times, the apparent path of the sun across the sky takes it
directly behind the line of sight between an earth station and a satellite. As the sun radiates
strongly at the microwave frequencies used to communicate with satellites (C-band, Ka band
and Ku band) the sun swamps the signal from the satellite.
The effects of a sun outage can include partial degradation, that is, an increase in the error
rate, or total destruction of the signal.

Figure: Earth Eclipse of a Satellite and Sun transit Outage

 Unit–IV

Satellite Subsystems: Attitude and Orbit control system, Telemetry, Tracking,

Commanding and Monitoring, Power Systems, Communication Subsystems,
Satellite antennas

Attitude&OrbitControlSystem(AOCS):

 This subsystem consists of rocket motors that are used to move thesatellite
back to the correct orbit when external forces cause it to drift off station.
 Gasjetsareusedtocontroltheattitudeofthesatellite.
 The attitudeandorbitofasatellite must becontrolledso thatthe satellite’s
antennas point toward the earth and so that user knows where in the skyto
look for the satellite.

Attitudecontrolsystem

 Therearetwowaystomakeasatellitestableinorbit.
 The body of the satellite can be rotatedat rate between 30 & 100 rpm that
provides stability of the spin axis & keeps it pointing in the same direction,
such satellites are known as spinners.
 Alternatively, the satellite can be stabilized by the one or more momentum
wheels, called as three- axis stabilized satellite.

Spinningthesatellite

 Inthismethod,thebodyofthesatelliterotatesarounditsspinaxis.
 Ingeneral,itcanberotatedat30to100rpminordertoproducea force, which
is of gyroscopic type.
 Due to this, the spin axis gets stabilizedand the satellite will pointin the
same direction. Satellites are of this type are called as spinners.
 Spinner contains a drum, which is of cylindrical shape. This drum is
covered with solar cells. Power systems and rockets are present in this
drum.
 Communication subsystem is placed on top of the drum. An electric
motor drives this communication system. The direction of this motorwill
be opposite to the rotation of satellite body, so that the antennas point
towards earth. The satellites, which perform this kindof operation are
called as de-spin.
 During launching phase, the satellite spins when the small radial gas jets
are operated. After this, the de-spinsystem operates in order to make
the TTCM subsystem antennas point towards earth station.

ThreeAxisMethod

 In this method, we can stabilize the satellite by using one or more

momentum wheels. This method is called as three-axis method. The
advantage of this method is that the orientation of the satellite in
three axes will be controlled and no need of rotating satellite’s main
body.
 Inthismethod,thefollowingthreeaxesareconsidered.
 Roll axis is considered in the direction in which the satellite moves in
orbital plane.
 Yawaxisisconsideredinthedirectiontowardsearth.
 Pitch axisis considered in the direction, which is perpendicular to
orbital plane.
Let XR, YR and ZR are the roll axis, yaw axis and pitch axis respectively. These
three axis are defined by considering the satellite’s position as reference. These
three axes define the altitude of satellite.

 Let X, Y and Z are another set of Cartesian axes. This set of three axis
provides the information about orientation of the satellite with respect to
reference axes. If there is a change in altitude of the satellite, then the
angles between the respective axes will be changed.
 In this method, each axis contains two gas jets. They will provide the
rotation in both directions of the three axes.
  Thefirst gas jet will be operated for some period of time, when there is a
requirement of satellite’s motion in a particular axis direction.
 Thesecond gas jet will be operated for same period of time, when the
satellite reaches to the desired position. So,the second gas jet willstop the
motion of satellite in that axis direction.
 Errorinattitudeisdeterminedbyattitudeerrordetectionsensors(Infrared earth
sensors)attached to the satellite.
 Any object which is above absolute zerodegree Kelvin radiates energy &
earth at 300degree kelvin radiates infrared energy morecompared to other
wavelength bands.

By processing the pulse width generated by sensors, it is possible to measure the

attitude error about Roll & Pitch axes.
Orbitcontrol:

 The gravitation forces ofmoon&thesuncauseinclinationoforbital plane.

 There are many other smaller forces that act on satellite causing the orbitto
change.
 Fortheorbittobetrulygeostationary,itmustlieinequatorialplane,be circular
and have correct altitude.

 The various forces acting on the satellite will steadily pull it out of the
correctorbit; itis the functionof the orbit controlsystem to return it to the
correct orbit.
 Gas jets that can impart velocity changes along three reference axes of
satellite are used.
 Correctingtheinclinationofasatelliteorbitrequires morefueltoexpended than
for any other orbital correction.
 This placesaweightpenaltyon thosesatellitesthat mustmaintainaccurate
station keeping & reduces communication payload they can carry.
Telemetry,Tracking,Command&Monitoring(TTC&M)

Telemetry&MonitoringSystem:
 Itcollectsdatafrom manysensorswithinsatellite& sends thesedatatothe
controlling earth station.
 Several hundred of sensors are located on satellite to monitor pressure in
the fuel tanks, voltage & current in power conditioning unit, current drawn
by each subsystem, & critical voltages & current in communications
electronics.
 Temperature of many subsystems must be kept within predetermined
limits, so many temp. Sensors are fitted.
 The sensor data, the status of each subsystem are reported back to the
earth by telemetry system.
 Telemetry data are digitized and transmitted as phase shift keying (PSK) of
low- power telemetry carrier using time division techniques.
 At controlling earth station a computer can be used to monitor, store, and
decode telemetry data so that status of any system or sensors on the
satellite can be determined immediately.
  Alarms can also be sounded if any vital parameter goes outside allowable
limits.

Tracking:

 [Link].
 Velocity & acceleration sensors on satellite can be used to establish the
change in orbit from last known position, by integration of data.
 The earth station controlling satellite can observe the Doppler shift of
telemetry carrier to determine rate at which range is changing.
 Active determination of range can be achieved by transmitting a pulse, or
sequence of pulses, to the satellite and observing the time delay before
pulse is received again.

Command:

 Thecommandsystemisusedtomakechangesinattitudeand corrections to
the orbit and to control communication system.
 During launch, it is used to control firing of AKM & to spin up spinner or
extend solar sails & antennas of 3- axis stabilized satellite.
 The command structure must possess safeguards against unauthorized
attempts to make changes to satellite’s operation.
 Encryption of commands& responses is usedto
provide security in command system.
 After monitoringall the data,commandsaregeneratedat the
control terminal of computer.
 ThecommandwordissentinaTDMframetothesatellite.
 Aftercheckingfor validity insatellite,command wordis sent backto the
control station via telemetry link where it is checked again in the
computer.
 Ifitfoundcorrectly,anexecuteinstructionwillsenttosatellite.
 The entire process may take 5 0r 10s, but minimizesthe risk of
erroneous commands causing satellitemalfunction.
PowerSystem
 All communication satellites obtain their electrical power from solar cells,
which converts incident sunlight into electrical energy. Some deep space
planetary research satellites have used thermonuclear generators.
 Communication satellites have not used nuclear generators. Sun is a
powerful source of energy.
 Atgeostationary altitude, the radiationfalling ona satellite has an intensity
of 1.39kW/𝑚2.
 Solar cells do not convert all incident energy into electrical power; their
efficiency is typically 20 to 25% at beginning of life (BOL) but falls with the
time because of aging of the cells.
 Since sufficient power must be available at the end of life (EOL) of satellite
to supply all the systems on board, about 15% extra area of solar cells is
usually provided as an allowance for aging.
 A spin stabilized satellite usually has a cylindrical body covered in solarcells.
Because solar cells are on cylindrical surface, half of the cells are not
illuminated at all, which results little electrical power being generated.
 The cells that are not illuminated by sunlight face cold space, which cause
them to cool down.
 More recently, large communication satellites for direct broadcast
operation generate up to 6kW from solar power.
 Fig:SatelliteStructure

 A three- axis stabilized satellite can make better use of its solar cell area,
since the cells can be arranged on flat panels that can be rotated to
maintain normal incidence of the sunlight.
 A primary advantage is that by unfurling a folded solar array when the
satellite reaches geostationary orbit, power in excess of 10kW can be
generated with large array.
 To obtain 10kW from a spinner requires a very large body as compared to
three-axis stabilized body.
 CommunicationSubsystems:

Transponders-
 AtransponderconsistsofBPFtoselectthe particularchannel’sband of
frequency, adown converter & an output amplifier.

Fig. shows a typical single conversion bent pipe transponder used on many
satellites for 6/4 GHz band.

 Thelocaloscillatorisat2225MHztoprovidetheappropriateshiftinfrequency
from 6 GHz to 4 GHz.

 Bandpassfilterafterthemixerremovesunwantedfrequencies.

 The output power amplifier is usually a solid state power amplifier (SSPA)
unless a very high output power is required.
 Redundancy is provided for high-power amplifiers in each transponder by
including a spare TWTA (travelling Wave tube amplifier) or solid-state
amplifier (SSPA) that can be switched if primary power amplifiers fail.

 The lifetime of high power amplifier’s is limited and they represent least
reliable component in most transponders.

 Providing a spare HPA in each transponder increases the probability that

the satellite will reach the end of its working life with all its transponders
working.
 Fig:TransponderStructure

 Transpondersforuseinthe14/11-GHzbandsnormallyemployadouble
frequency conversion scheme.

 Incoming14-GHzcarrieristranslatedtoan IFaround1GHz.

 The amplification & filtering are performed at 1 GHz & a relatively high-
level carrier is translated back to 11 GHz for amplification by HPA.

SatelliteAntennas:
Itisclassifiedintofourtypes:

 WireAntennas:Monopole&Dipole
 HornAntennas
 ReflectorAntennas
 ArrayAntennas.
 WireAntennas:
 These are used primarily at VHF & UHF to provide communications for the
TTC&M systems.
 Theyarepositionedwithgreatcareonthebodyofthesatelliteinanattempt to
provide omnidirectional coverage.
 Anantennapatternisa plotofthefieldstrengthinfarfieldonantenna.
 Itisusuallymeasuredindecibels(dB).

Fig:AntennaPattern

HornAntennas:
 These are used at microwave frequencies when relatively wide beams are
required, as for global coverage.
 A horn is a flared section of waveguide that provides an aperture several
wavelengths wide and a good match between the waveguide impedance
and free space.
 Hornsarealsousedasfeedsforreflectors.
 Fig:Typesof horn
ReflectorAntennas:
 Themostoftenusedantennaforsatellitesystems,particularlyforthose
operating above 10 GHz, is the parabolic reflector antenna.
 Theseareusuallyilluminatedbyoneormorehornsandprovidealager aperture
compared to horn antenna.
 Parabolicreflectorsofferamuchhighergainthanthatachievablebythe horn
antenna alone.

Fig:ReflectorParabola
 ArrayAntennas:
 Array antennas are also used on satellites to create multiple beams from a
single aperture.
 Multiple beams are formed by combiningthe radiation from several small
elements made up of dipoles, horns etc.
 Iridium and Globalstarused thesekindof antennasto generateup to16
beams from a single aperture for their LEO mobile telephonesystems.

EquipmentReliability&Spacequalification:
 Once satellite is in geostationary orbit, there is little possibility of repairing
components that fail or adding more fuel for station keeping.
 The component that makes up the satellite must therefore have very high
reliability.
 Twoapproaches are used: Space qualificationof every partofthesatellite to
ensure that it has a long life expectancy in orbit & redundancy of most
critical components to provide continued operation when one component
fails.

SpaceQualification:

 Outerspace,atgeostationaryorbitdistances,isa harshenvironment.
 The sunirradiates the satellite with1.4kW of heat andlightoneachsquare
meter of exposed surface.
 Whensurfacesareinshadow,surface temperature willfalltowardabsolute
zero.
 Electronic equipment can’t operate at such extremes of temperature &
heated or cooled so that it’s temp. Stays within the range 0˚ to 75 ˚C. This
requires a thermal control system.
 The first stage in ensuring high reliability in a satellite is by selection and
screening of every component used.
 Past operational & test experience of components indicates which
components can be expected to have good reliability.
 Each component is tested individually to ensure that it meets its
specification. This process is known as quality control or quality assurance&
is vital inbuilding any equipment that is to be reliable.
 Once individual components and subsystems have been space qualified,the
complete satellite must be tested as a system to ensure that its many
systemsare reliable.
 When a satellite is designed, three prototype models are often build and
tested.

1. Mechanical model- Itcontainsallthestructural & mechanicalpartsthatwill be

included in the satellite & is tested to ensure that all moving parts operate
correctly in vacuum, over a wide temperature [Link] also subjected to
vibration & shock testing.

2. Thermal model- It contains all electronics packages and other components

that must be maintained at the correct temperature.

3. Electrical model- contains all the electronic parts of the satellite and is
tested for correct electrical performance under total vacuum and a wide
range of temperatures.

 Testing carried out on models is designed to overstress the system

and induce failure in any weak components.

 Temperature cycling will be carried out to 10% beyond expected

extremes; structural loads 50% above those expected may beapplied.

 Electrical equipment will be subjected to excess voltage and current

drain to test for foodelectronic and thermal reliability.
Reliability:
 We need to be able to calculate reliability for two reasons: We want to
know what the probability is that subsystem will still be working after a
given time period & we need to provide redundant components or
subsystems where probability of failure is too great to be accepted.
 Reliability is a mathematical technique which gives an idea about the
probability of failure.

 The reliability of a component can be expressedin terms of probability

offailure after time t.
 For most electronic equipment, probability of failure is higher at beginning
of life- the burn – in period.
 Asthecomponentages,failurebecomesmorelikely.
 Mathematicallyreliabilityofdeviceorsub-systemisdefinedas,

 Theotherimprovementparameterinreliability studyisthemeantime
before failure (MTBF) and isgiven by
Whereti=timeafterwhich ithdevicefails.

 MTBFisrelatedtoaveragefailureby

 Thefailurerate⅄[Link] terms of
reliability ofsubsystem or device it is given by

Redundancy:
 Byusingredundantcomponents,reliabilityofsubsystemcanbeincreased.
 The redundant device can incorporate with the existing operating devices/
components either in series or in parallel or may be mixed.

Fig:RedundantblockStructure
Multiple Access: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Intermodulation, calculation of
C/N. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Frame structure, Examples.

MULTIPLEACCESS
Withthe increaseofchanneldemandsand thenumber of earthstations, efficient useofasatellite
transponder inconjunctionwithmanystations has resulted inthedevelopment ofmultipleaccess
techniques. Multiple access is a technique in which the satellite resource (bandwidth or time) is
divided into a number of nonoverlapping segments and each segment is allocated exclusively to
each of the large number of earth stations who seek to communicate with each other. There are
three known multiple access techniques. They are:
(1) FrequencyDivisionMultipleAccess(FDMA)
(2) TimeDivisionMultipleAccess(TDMA)
(3) CodeDivisionMultipleAccess(CDMA)
FREQUENCYDIVISIONMULTIPLEACCESS(FDMA)
The most widely used of the multiple access techniques is FDMA. In FDMA, the available
satellite bandwidth is divided into portions of non-overlapping frequency slots which are
assigned exclusivelyto individualearthstations. AbasicdiagramofanFDMAsatellitesystem is
shown in Fig.
Examples ofthis technique are FDM/FM/FDMAused inINTELSAT II &III and SCPC satellite
systems. Also, SPACE (signal-channel-per-carrier PCM multiple access demand assignment
equipment) used inINTELSAT IV inwhichchannels are assigned ondemand to earthstations is
considered as a FDMA system. In FDMA systems, multiple signals from the same or different
earth stations with different carrier frequencies are simultaneously passed through a satellite
transponder. Becauseofthe nonlinear modeofthe transponder, FDMAsignals interact witheach
other causing intermodulation products (intermodulation noise) which are signals at all
combinations of sum and difference frequencies as shown in the example given in Fig.

The power of these intermodulation products represents a loss in the desired signal power. In
addition, ifthese intermodulationproductsappearwithinthe bandwidthoftheother signals, they act
as interference for these signals and as a result the BER performances will be degraded. The
other major disadvantage of the FDMA system is the need for accurate uplink power control
among network stations in order to mitigate the weak signal suppression effect caused by
disproportionate power sharing of the transponder power.
Calculationof[C/N]:
TIMEDIVISIONMULTIPLEACCESS(TDMA)
In search of an alternative multiple access technique; attention was focused on the possibilities
afforded by TDMA. In TDMA, the sharing of the communication resource by several earth
stations is performed by assigning a short time (time slot) to each earth station in which theyhave
exclusive use of the entire transponder bandwidth and communicate with each other by means of
non-overlapping burst of signals. A basic TDMA system is shown in Fig.

InTDMA, thetransmit timingofthebursts isaccuratelysynchronizedsothatthetransponder

receivesoneburst at atime. Eachearthstationreceivesanentireburst streamandextractsthe bursts
intended for it. A frame consists of a number of bursts originating froma community of earth
stations in a network. A TDMA frame structure is shown in Fig.
It consistsoftwo reference burstsRB1andRB2, traffic burstsandtheguardtime between bursts. As
can be seen, each TDMA frame has two reference bursts RB1 and RB2. The primary reference
burst (PRB), which can be either RB1 or RB2, is transmitted by one of the earth stations inthe
network designated as the primaryreference earthstation. Forreliability, a second reference burst
(SRB) is transmitted by a secondary reference earth station. To ensure undisrupted service for the
TDMA network, automatic switchover between these two reference stations is provided. The
reference bursts carry no traffic information and are used to provide synchronization for all earth
stations in the network.
The traffic bursts carry information from the traffic earth station. Each earth station accessing a
transponder may transmit one or two traffic bursts per TDMA frame and may position them
anywhere in the frame according to a burst time plan that coordinates traffic between earth
stations in the network.
The Guard time between bursts ensures that the bursts never overlap at the input to the
transponder.
TheTDMAburstsstructureofthereferenceandtrafficburstaregivenin Fig
Inthetrafficburst,trafficdata(informationbits) is precededbyapatternofbitsreferredto as a
preamble which contains the information for synchronization, management and control.
Varioussequences inthereferenceburstandtrafficburstareasfollows:
Carrierandbittimingrecovery (CBTR)
The CBTR pattern provides information for carrier and timing recovery circuits of the earth
station demodulator. The length of the CBTR sequence depends on the carrier-to-noise ratio at
the input of the demodulator and the acquisition range. For example, the 120 Mb/s TDMAsystem
of INTELSAT V has a 48 symbol pattern for carrier recovery and a 128 symbol pattern for bit
timing recovery.
Uniqueword (UW)
The unique word sequence in the reference burst provides the receive frame timing thatallowsan
earth station to locate the position of a traffic burst in the frame. The UW in the traffic burst
marks the beginning of the traffic burst and provides information to an earth station so that it
selects onlythose traffic bursts intended for it. The UW is a sequence ofones and zeros selected to
exhibit good correlation properties to enhance detection. The UW of the INTELSAT VTDMA
system has a length of 24 symbols.
Teletype(TTY)andvoiceorderwire(VOW)
Teletype and voice order wire patterns carry instructions to and fromearth stations. The number
of symbols for each of the patterns is 8 symbols for the INTELSAT V TDMA.
Servicechannel(SC)
The service channel of the reference burst carriers management instructions such as burst time
plan which gives the coordination of traffic between earth stations, i.e. position, length, and
source and destination earth stations corresponding to traffic bursts in the TDMA frame. The
channel also carries monitoring and control information to the traffic stations. The SC of the
traffic burst carries the traffic station’s status to the reference station (value of transmit delayused
and reference station from which the delay is obtained). It also contains other information such
as the high bit error rate and UW loss alarms to other traffic stations. The INTELSAT V TDMA
has an 8-symbol SC for each of the bursts.
Control and delaychannel (CDC)
The control and delay channel pattern carries acquisition and synchronization information to the
trafficearthstationstoenablethemtoadjusttheirtransmitdelayssothatburstsarriveatthe
satellitetransponder withinthecorrect timeslotsintheframe. It also carriesthereference station status code which enables them to identify the primary
and secondary reference bursts. Eight symbols are allocated for this channel in the INTELSAT V TDMA.
Trafficdata:
This portion contains the information froma source traffic station to a destination traffic station. The informants can be voice, data, video or
facsimile signals. The traffic data pattern is divided into blocks of data (referred to as subburst).
Thesizeofeachdatablockisgivenby:
Subburst size(symbols)=symbolrate(symbols/sec)Xframelength(sec).
The INTELSAT TDMA with a frame length ofT f= 2 msec for PCM voice data has a subburst size of 64 symbols long.
 CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS (CDMA)

 In CDMA satellite systems, each uplink earth station is identified by an address

code imposed on its carrier. Each uplink earth station uses the entire bandwidth
transmits through the satellite whenever desired.
 No bandwidth or time sharing is required in CDMA satellite systems. Signal
identification is achieved at a receiving earth station by recognising the
corresponding address code.
 In CDMA technique, a unique code has been assigned to each channel to
distinguish from each other. A perfect example of this type of multiple access is our
cellular system. We can see that no two persons’ mobile number match with each
other although they are same X or Y mobile service providing company’s customers
using the same bandwidth.
 In CDMA process, we do the decoding of inner product of the encoded signal
and chipping sequence. Therefore, mathematically it can be written as
Encoded signal= Original data X chipping sequence
  The basic advantage of this type of CDMA is that it allows
all users to coexist and use the entire bandwidth at the same
time. Since each user has different code, there won’t be any
interference.
 In this technique, a number of stations can have number of
channels unlike FDMA and TDMA. The best part of this
technique is that each station can use the entire spectrum at
alltime.
Application :
CDMA is used as the access method in many mobile phone standards, also called "cdmaOne", and its 3G
evolution CDMA2000, are often simply referred to as "CDMA", but UMTS, the3G standard used by GSM
carriers, also uses "wideband CDMA", or W-CDMA, as well as TD-CDMA and TD- SCDMA, as its radio
technologies.
There are three CDMA techniques as follows:

1. Direct sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA)

2. Frequency hopping CDMA (FH-CDMA)
3. Hybrid CDMA
1. Direct sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA)
In this technique, an addressed pseudo-noise (PN) sequence generated by the PN code generator of an uplink
earth station together with the information data are modulated directly on the carrier as shown in Fig. 9.28a.
The same PN sequence is used synchronously at the receiving earth station to despread the received signal in
order to receive the original data information (Fig. 9.28b).
  The bits of the PN sequence are referred to as chips. The ratio
between the chip rate and information rate is called the spreading
factor. Phase-shift-keying modulation schemes are commonly used
for these systems.
 The most widely used binary PN sequence is the maximum length
linear feedback shift register sequence (m-sequence) which is
generated by an m-stage shift register.

2. Frequency hopping CDMA (FH-CDMA)

The block diagram of an FH-CDMA transmitter/receiver is shown in
Fig.
Here, the addressed PN sequence is used to continually change the frequency of the carrier at the uplink earth
station (hopping).

 At the receiver, the local PN code generator produces a

synchronized replica of the transmitted PN code which changes
thesynthesizer frequency in order to remove the frequency hops
on the received signal, leaving the original modulated signal
untouched. Non-coherent M-ary FSK modulation schemes are
commonly used for these systems.
3. Hybrid CDMA
A hybrid CDMA system employs a combination of
DS-CDMA and FHCDMAtechniques.
 In all these techniques, a larger bandwidth is produced
than that which will be generate by the modulation alone.
Because of this spreading of the signal spectrum. 

 CDMA systems are also referred to as spread spectrum

multiple access (SSMA) systems. Spreading the spectrum of
the transmitted signal has important applications in military
satellite systems since it produces.

 Spreading the spectrum of the transmitted signal has

important applications in military satellite systems since it
produces inherent anti jam advantages. In addition to anti
jamming protection, another important feature of these
systems is their low probability of interception (LPI) and
hence, reduces the probability of reception by unauthorized
users.
 Earth Station Technology
The earth segment of a satellite communications system consists of the transmit
and receive earth stations. The simplest of these are the home TV receive-only (TVRO)
systems, and the most complex are the terminal stations used for international
communications networks. Also included in the earth segment are those stations which
are on ships at sea, and commercial and military land and aeronautical mobile stations.
As mentioned in earth stations that are used for logistic sup- port of satellites, such as
providing the telemetry, tracking, and command (TT&C) functions, are considered as
part of the space segment.

Terrestrial Interface :

Earth station is a vital element in any satellite communication network. The

function of an earth station is to receive information from or transmit information to,
the satellite network in the most cost-effective and reliable manner while retaining the
desired signal quality. The design of earth station configuration depends upon many
factors and its location. But it is fundamentally governed by its

Location which are listed below,

b) In land
c) On a ship at sea,onboard aircraft
The factors are
d) Type of services
e) Frequency bands used
f) Function of the transmitter
g) Function of the receiver
h) Antenna characteristics

Transmitter and Receiver

Any earth station consists of four major subsystems

i) Transmitter
j) Receiver
k) Antenna • Tracking equipment
 Two other important subsystems are
• Terrestrial interface equipment
• Power supply
 The earth station depends on the following parameters
• Transmitter power
• Choice of frequency
• Gain of antenna
• Antenna efficiency
• Antenna pointing accuracy
• Noise temperature
The functional elements of a basic digital earth station are shown in the belowfigure

Digital information in the form of binary digits from terrestrial networks enters
earth station and is then processed (filtered, multiplexed,formatted etc.) by the base
band equipment.

• The encoder performs error correction coding to reduce

the error rate, by introducing extra digits into digital stream
generated by the base band equipment. The extra digits carry
information.
• In satellite communication, I.F carrier frequency is chosen
at70 MHz for communication using a 36 MHz transponder bandwidth
and at 140 MHz for a transponder bandwidth of 54 or 72 MHz.
 • On the receive side, the earth station antenna receives
the low-level modulated R.F carrier in the downlink frequency
spectrum.

• The low noise amplifier (LNA) is used to amplify the weak

received signals and improve the signal to Noise ratio (SNR). The error
rate requirements can be met more easily.
• R.F is to be reconverted to I.F at 70 or 140 MHz because it
is easier design a demodulation to work at these frequencies than 4
or12 GHz.

• The demodulator estimate which of the possible

symbolswas transmitted based on observation of the received if
carrier.

• The decoder performs a function opposite that of the

encoder. Because the sequence of symbols recovered by the
demodulator may contain errors, the decoder must use the
uniquenessof the redundant digits introduced by the encoder to
correct the errorsand recover information-bearing digits.

• The information stream is fed to the base-band

equipmentfor processing for delivery to the terrestrial network.

• The tracking equipments track the satellite and align

thebeam towards it to facilitate communication.
 Antenna Systems :
The antenna system consist of
Feed System
Antenna Reflector
Mount
Antenna tracking System

FEED SYSTEM

The feed along with the reflector is the radiating/receiving element of

electromagnetic waves. The reciprocity property of the feed element makes the earth
station antenna system suitable for transmission and reception of electromagnetic
waves.

The way the waves coming in and going out is called feed configuration EarthStation feed
systems most commonly used in satellite communication are:

i) Axi-Symmetric Configuration
ii)Asymmetric Configuration

iii) Axi-ASymmetric Configuration

i) Axi-Symmetric Configuration

In an axi-symmetric configuration the antenna axes are symmetrical with respect to the
reflector ,which results in a relatively simple mechanical structure and antenna mount.
 Primary Feed :

In primary, feed is located at the focal point of the parabolic reflector. Many
dishes use only a single bounce, with incoming waves reflecting off thedish surface to
the focus in front of the dish, where the antenna is located. when the dish is used to
transmit ,the transmitting antenna at the focus beams waves toward the dish, bouncing
them off to space. This is the simplest arrangement.

Cassegrain :

Many dishes have the waves make more than one bounce .This is generally
called as folded systems. The advantage is that the whole dish and feed system is more
compact. There are several folded configurations, but all have at least one secondary
reflector also called a sub reflector, located out in front of the dish to redirect the
waves.
A common dual reflector antenna called Cassegrain has a convex sub reflector
positioned in front of the main dish, closer to the dish than the [Link] sub reflector
bounces back the waves back toward a feed located on the
main dish’s center, sometimes behind a hole at the center of the main dish. Sometimes
there are even more sub reflectors behind the dish to direct the waves to the fed for
convenience or compactness.

Gregorian

This system has a concave secondary reflector located just beyond theprimary focus.
This also bounces the waves back toward the dish.

ii) Asymmetric Configuration Offset

or Off-axis feed

The performance of tan axi-symmetric configuration is affected by the blockage

of the aperture by the feed and the sub reflector assembly. The result is a reduction in
the antenna efficiency and an increase in the side lobe levels. The asymmetric
configuration can remove this limitation..This is achieved by offsetting the mounting
arrangement of the feed so that it does not obstruct the main [Link] a result ,the
efficiency and side lobe level performance are improved.

ANTENNA REFLECTOR :

Mostly parabolic reflectors are used as the main antenna for the earth stations
because of the high gain available from the reflector and the ability of focusing a
parallel beam into a point at the focus where the feed,i.e., the receiving/radiating
element is located
.For large antenna system more than one reflector surfaces may be used in asin the
cassegrain antenna system.

Earth stations are also classified on the basis of services forexample: 1 .Two
way TV ,Telephony and data
2 . Two way TV
3 .TV receive only and two way telephony

and data

4 .Two way data

From the classifications it is obvious that the technology of earth stationwill vary
considerably on the performance and the service requirements of earth station
For mechanical design of parabolic reflector the following parameters arerequired to
be considered:

 Size of the reflector

 Focal Length /diameter ratio
 RMS error of main and sub reflector
 Pointing and tracking accuracies
 Speed and acceleration
 Type of mount
 Coverage Requirement
 Wind Speeed

The size of the reflector depends on transmit and receive gain requirement and
beamwidth of the [Link] is directly proportional to the antenna diameter
whereas the beamwidth is inversely proportional to the antenna diameter .for high
inclination angle of the satellite ,the tracking of the earth station becomes necessary
when the beamwidth is too narrow.

The overall efficiency of the antenna is the net product of various factors suchas

1. Cross Polarization
2. Spill over

3. Diffraction
4. Blockage

5. Surface accuracy
6. Phase error

7. Illumination
In the design of feed ,the ratio of focal length F to the diameter of the
reflector D of the antenna system control the maximum angle subtended by
the reflector surface on the focal point. Larger the F/D ratio larger is the
aperture illumination efficiency and lower the crosspolarization.
 ANTENNA MOUNT :

Type of antenna mount is determined mainly by the coverage requirement and

tracking requirements of the antenna systems. Different types of mounts used for
earth station antenna are:

i) The Azimuth –elevation mount :

This mount consists of a primary vertical axis. Rotation around this axis controls
the azimuth angle. The horizontal axis is mounted over the primary axis, providing the
elevation angle control.

ii) The X-Y mount.

It consists of a horizontal primary axis (X-axis) and a secondary axis (Yaxis) and at
right angles to it. Movement around these axes providesnecessary steering.

INPUT BACK-OFF

• In order to reduce the intermodulation distortion, the operating point

of the TWT must be shifted closer to the linear portion of the curve, the
reduction in input power being referred to as input backoff .

• The input backoff is the difference in decibels between the carrier input
at the operating point and the saturation input which would be required
for single-carrier operation.
 EARTH STATION TRACKING SYSTEM

Tracking is essential when the satellite drift, as seen by an earth stationantenna is a

significant fraction of an earth station’s antenna beam width.
An earth station’s tracking system is required to perform some of thefunctions such as
i) Satellite acquisition
ii) Automatic tracking
iii) Manual tracking
iv) Program tracking

MAIN ELEMENTS OF A SATELLITE TRACKING SYSTEM

 i) Satellite acquisition
Before communication can be established it is necessary to acquirea satellite.
One method is to program the antenna to perform a scanaround the
predicted position of the satellite. The automatic tacking is switched on
when the receiver signal strength is sufficient to lock the tracking receiver
to the beacon.
ii) Automatic Tracking:
After acquisition a satellite needs to be tracked continuously. This function is
performed by the automatic tracking system .Auto-tack systems are
closed-loop control systems and
are therefore highly accurate. This tracking mode is the preferred
configuration when accuracy is the dominant criterion. iii)Manual track
To avoid a total loss of communication due to a failure in the tracking
system, earth stations generally also have manual [Link] this mode an
antenna is moved through manual commands.
iv) Program Track
In this tracking mode the antenna is driven to the predicted satelliteposition by a
computer.
• The satellite position predictions are usually supplied by the
satellite operators. It may be noted that since a program
tracksystem is an open-loop control system, its accuracy is
mainlygoverned by the accuracy of the prediction data.
 • Communication satellites transmit a beacon which is used by
earthstations for tracking.
• The received beacon signal is fed into the auto-track
receiverwhere tracking corrections or, in some auto-track
systems estimated positions of the satellite are derived
• The outputs of the auto-track receivers are processed and used
todrive each axis of the antenna to the estimated satellite
position.

Auto Track system:

There are three main types of auto-track system which have beencommonly
used for satellite tracking
i) conical scan
ii)monopulse
iii)step-track.

i) conical scan

The conical scan technique has evolved from the lobing technique usedin
theRADARS (Radio detection and ranging).
In this technique an antenna beam is switched between two positions.
ii) MONOPULSE TECHNIQUE

• In the mono pulse technique the errors for driving the antenna
system are derived by simultaneous lobbing of the received
beacon
–hence the name Static-split or monopulse

• Several mono pulse schemes such as amplitude comparison,

phasecomparison or amplitude phase comparison are possible.

• The amplitude comparison technique is the simplest and

commonly used for satellite tracking. The basic principle of its
operation is understood from Figure
• Two horns are offset and mounted in a plane. Two types of
patterns can be distinguished-a sum pattern Σ and a
differencepattern .
• The difference pattern output with respect to sum pattern is
zero when the satellite is centered, otherwise the output is
proportionalto the tracking error.

iii) Step-Track

• In the step –track technique, error signals are derived

fromamplitude sensing.

• The operation is based on maximization of the received signal

bymoving the axes in small steps (hence the name step track)
until a maximization is affected.

• The tracking accuracy of the technique depends on the step

sizeand the signal to noise ratio. For high signal to noise ratios
the standard deviation of tracking error approaches the step
size.
Recent Tracking Techniques:

• There have been some interesting recent developments in auto-

track techniques which can potentially provide high accuracies at
alow cost .
• The high rate of switching is achieved by the use of an
electronically controlled feed.
• This technique, sometimes referred to as electronic beam
squinting, requires a simple single channel receiver and has
beenreported to achieve a tracking accuracy approaching that
of the auto-track technique.
 Unit -5 Satellite Link Design
Contents:
⚫ Basic Transmission Theory
⚫ System Noise Temperature & G/T Ratio
⚫ Design of downlinks
⚫ Uplink design
⚫ Design of satellite links for specified C/N

Basic Transmission Theory

⚫ The calculation of power received by an earth station from a
satellite is fundamental to the understanding of satellite
communication.
⚫ Consider a transmitting source, in free space, radiating a total
power Pt watts uniformly in all directions.
⚫ Such source is called isotropic.
⚫ At a distance R meters from isotropic source, flux density
crossing the surface
F = Pt/ 4 πR2 (W/m2 )

2
3
 ⚫ For a transmitter with output Pt watts driving a lossless antenna with gain
Gt , the flux density at distance R meters is

F= PtGt / 4 πR2 (W/m2 )

The product PtGt is called effective isotropic radiated power or EIRP, it
describes the combination of transmitting power & antenna gain in terms of an
equivalent isotropic source with power PtGt watts.
• If we had an ideal receiving antenna with an aperture of A m2
we would collect power Pr watts given by
Pr = F * A watts
• A practical antenna with physical aperture area of A m2 will not deliver
power as given in above equation.
• Some of the energy incident on aperture is reflected away from the
antenna, some is absorbed by lossy components. The effective aperture
Ae is
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 Ae = ηA A
Where ηA aperture efficiency of the antenna.
For parabolic reflector ηA = 50 to 75%
For Horn antennas ηA= 90%

⚫ Thus the power received by real antenna with effective aperture area Ae
m2 is
Pr = Pt Gt Ae / 4 πR2 (watts) ......... (A)
⚫ A fundamental relation in antenna theory is gain & area of an antenna
are related by
G = 4π Ae / λ2
⚫ Substituting above equation in equation (A) gives
Pr = [Pt GtGr/ (4 πR / λ )2 ]watts
⚫ This expression is known as link equation & essential in calculation of
power received in any radio link.
The term (4 πR / λ )2 is known as path loss Lp

⚫ Collecting various factors, we can write Power received

= (EIRP * Receiving antenna gain / path loss)watts
⚫ In decibel, we have
Pr = EIRP + Gr – Lp ................................................... (B)
Where EIRP= 10log10 (Pt Gt ) dBW
Gr = 10log10 (4π Ae / λ2 )dB Lp = 10log10 (4 πR / λ )2 dB

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 ⚫ Equation B represents an idealized case, in which there are no additional
losses in the link.
⚫ In practice, we need to take account of a more complex situation in
which we have losses in atmosphere due to attenuation by oxygen,
watervapor and rain, losses in the antennas at each end of the link.
⚫ So equation B can be written as
⚫ Pr = EIRP + Gr – Lp – La-Lta– Lra dBW
⚫ where La = attenuation in atmosphere
Lta = losses associated with transmitting antenna Lra = losses associated with
receiving antenna
⚫ The received power, Pr is commonly referred to as carrier power, C.
⚫ This is because most satellite links use either frequency modulation for
analog transmission or phase modulation for digital systems.
In both of the modulation schemes, the amplitude of the carrier is not changed
when data are modulated onto the carrier, so carrier power C is always equal to
received power

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System Noise Temperature & G/T ratio:
Noise Temperature
⚫ Noise temperature provides a way of determining how much thermal
noise is generated by active and passive devices in the receiving system.
⚫ At microwave frequencies, a black body with physical temperature, Tp
degrees kelvin, generate electrical noise over a wide bandwidth.
⚫ The noise power is given by
Pn = kTn B

⚫ Where
k= Boltzmann’s constant= 1.38 * 10-23 J/K
= -228.6 dBW/K/Hz
Tn = Noise temperature of source in K
B= noise bandwidth in which noise power is measured, in Hz.
System noise temperature Ts, is the noise temperature of noise source at the
input of noiseless receiver, which gives same noise power as the original
receiver, measured at the output of receiver.

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Calculation of System noise temperature

⚫ The noisy devices in the receiver are replaced by equivalent noiseless

blocks with the same gain and noise generators at the input to each block
such that the block produce same noise at its output as the device it
replaces.
⚫ The total noise power at the output of the IF amplifier of the receiver is
given by

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⚫ This equation can be written as

⚫ The single source of noise shown in above figure with noise temperature
Ts generates the same noise power Pn at its output

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 ⚫ So the system noise temperature is

Noise Figure
⚫ Noise figure is used to specify the noise generated within a device.
⚫ The operational noise figure is
NF = (S/N)in /(S/N)out

Noise Temperature
⚫ Noise temperature is more useful in satellite communication systems, it
is best to convert noise figure to noise temperature, T
T = T0 (NF- 1)
⚫ Where
NF is a linear ratio, not in decibels
T0 is the reference temperature (290 K)

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G/T Ratio for earth stations
⚫ The link equation can be rewritten in terms of (C/N) at the earth stations

Downlink Design
⚫ The design of any satellite communication is based on two objectives:
a) meeting a minimum C/N ratio for a specified percentage of time, and
b) carrying the maximum revenue earning traffic at minimum cost.

⚫ Any satellite link can be designed with very large antennas to achieve
high C/N ratios under all conditions, but the cost will be high.
⚫ The art of good system design is to reach the best compromise of system
parameters that meets the specification at the lower cost.

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 Link Budget
⚫ C/N ratio calculation is simplified by the use of link budgets.
⚫ A link budget is a tabular method for evaluating the received power and
noise power.
⚫ Link budgets invariably use decibel units for all quantities so that signal
and noise powers can be calculated by addition and subtraction.
⚫ Since it is usually impossible to design a satellite link at the first attempt,
link budgets make the task much easier because, once a link budget has
been established, it is easy to change any of the parameters and
recalculate the result.

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Uplink Design
⚫ The Uplink design is easier than the downlink, since an accurately
specified carrier power must be presented at the satellite transponder and
it is often feasible to use much higher power transmitters at earth
stations than can be used on a satellite.

The cost of transmitters tend to be high compared with the cost of receiving
equipment in satellite communication system
⚫ Earth station transmitter power is set by the power level required at the
input to the transponder.
⚫ Analysis of the uplink requires calculation of the power level at the input
to the transponder so that the uplink C/N ratio can be found.
⚫ The link equation is used to make this calculation.
⚫ Let (C/N)up be the specified C/N ratio in the transponder, measured in an
noise bandwidth Bn Hz.

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At frequencies above 10 GHz, propagating disturbances in the form of fading
in rain causes the received power level at the satellite to fall.
⚫ This lowers the uplink C/N ratio in the transponder , which lowers the
overall (C/N)o ratio in the earth station receiver.

Design for Specified C/N:

⚫ When more than one C/N ratio is present in the link, we can add the
individual C/N ratios reciprocally to obtain overall C/N ratio denoted as
(C/N)o
⚫ The overall (C/N)o ratio is
(C/N)o = 1/ [1/(C/N)1 + 1/(C/N)2 + ]
⚫ This sometimes referred as reciprocal C/N formula.
⚫ The C/N values must be linear ratios, not decibel values.
⚫ (C/N)o = C/(N1 + N2 + )
⚫ In dB units :
(C/N)o= C dBW – 10log10 (N1 +N2 + ) dB
⚫ C/N ratio at the receiver always yield (C/N)o , the combination of
transponder and earth station C/N ratios.

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