 Grade -10

 Subject -Chemistry
 Date-/ / /2018 E.C
UNIT ONE
Chemical reaction and stoichiometry
INTRODUCTION
 Change is the law 6f nature.
We observed various types of change around us.
o The growth of seed in to a plant
o The burning of wood in a fire place
o The rusting of iron articles in moisture of air
o The rotting of food
o The evaporation of liquid are some of the change.
 Scientists categorize change as
o Physical change
o Chemical change
 Physical change is change that does not involves the formation of a new substance with new chemical
composition.
Example
a. evaporation of liquid
b. Powdering of sugar
c. Melting of ice
 The change which results in the formation new one or more new substance with new chemical composition is
known as a chemical change.
Example of chemical change is * turning of milk into curd
*Photosynthesis by green plant
*rotting of egg by bacteria
 Chemical change occurs due to chemical reactions between substances.
Chemical reaction is the process in which reacting substance is called reactant are converted into new substance is
called product.
o A Chemical reaction is represented by a short hand notation called Chemical equation as:
Reactant → product
 A Chemical equation uses chemical symbols to show what happens during Chemical reaction.
 A balance chemical equation can be used to describe the relationships between the amount of reactant and
product.
 The quantitative study of reactant and products in a chemical reaction is called stoichiometry.
In this unit you will study of the types of
o Chemical reactions
o Chemical equations
o Redox reactions
o Chemical formulas
o Mass of compounds
o Mole of concepts
o Reaction stoichiometry
1.2 Chemical equations
 A Chemical equation is a shorthand representation of an actual chemical reaction in terms of chemical symbols
and formulas. In a Chemical equation the starting substances are called reactant.
The New substance produces are known as products.
 In a chemical equation reactants are written on the left side and on the right side of the equation.
 An arrow (→) is placed between the two sides to indicate transformation of reactants into products.
Reactant → product
1.2.1Writing chemical equation
 In writing chemical equation, instead of used words chemical symbol and formulas are used to represent the
reactions.
Step to write a chemical equation
1. Write the word equation
For example: hydrogen + Nitrogen →Ammonia (word equation)
2. Write the symbol and formula for the reactant and products in the word equation.
For example: H2 + N2→ NH3 (unbalance equation)
3. Balance the chemical equation
For example: 3H2 + N2→ 2NH3
Exercises write the chemical equation for the reaction that occurs between
A. calcium carbonate and sulfuric acid
B. Sodium chloride and sliver nitrate
Answer1: 1. calcium carbonate + sulfuric acid → calcium Sulfate +Water + Carbon dioxide (word equation)
2. CaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (l) → CaSO4(s) +H2O (l) CO2 (g) (chemical equation)
Answer2: 1. Sodium chloride + sliver nitrate→ sliver chloride + Sodium nitrate (word equation)
2. NaCl (aq) +AgNO3 (aq) →. NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (aq) (chemical equation)
 A chemical equation has both qualitative and quantitative meaning
 Qualitatively a chemical equation indicates the types of the reactants and products in the
reactions.
 Quantitatively a chemical equation expresses the relative number(amount) of moles ,molecules
or masses of the reactant and products.
For example the balance chemical equation
 2H2 + O2→ 2H2O has both qualitatively and quantitatively meaning
Qualitatively it shows that the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen form water.
Quantitatively it indicate that two unit of hydrogen combine with one unit of oxygen to form two unit of water.
 The quantities may be expressed in term of Grams,
Number of moles &
Number of molecules.
1.2.2 Balancing chemical equation
 According the law conservation mass atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction.
A. Balancing Chemical equations by inspection method
 The most common way to balance Chemical equations is to use inspecting method.
-Trial & error method
Step to write a chemical equation by inspection method
1. Write the word equation
For example:
2. Write the symbol and formula for the reactant and products in the word equation.
3. Start with the most complicated compound count and tabulate the number of each types of atom on
the two sides of unbalanced equations.
4. Make the number of each type of atoms on the left sides equal to the number of corresponding atoms on the right
sides of the equations.
Examples balance the chemical reaction that takes place between iron & water to form iron (IV) Oxide & Hydrogen gas
by the inspection method.
1. Iron + water → iron (IV) Oxide + Hydrogen gas(word equation)
2. Fe + H2→ Fe3O4 + H2 (unbalanced Chemical equations)
NB- inspection method Works best for simple equation
B. Balancing Chemical equations by the LCM method
 BY the LCM of the total valance of the reactants & products & dividing it by the total valance of the reactants &
products, the coefficients for the balanced Chemical equations are derived.
Examples when aluminum reacts with oxygen, aluminum oxygen are formed.

Write Balancing Chemical equation for the reaction.

1. Represent the reaction by word equation
Aluminum + oxygen → aluminum oxygen
2. Write the correct symbols & formulas for the reactant and products
Al+ O2→ Al2 O3
3. Place the total valance of each atom above it.
3 4 6 6
Al+ O2→ Al2 O3
The total valance of oxygen is 2x2= 4
The total valance of Aluminum in Al2 O3 is 3x2 =6
The total valance of oxygen in Al2 O3 is 2x3 =6
Therefore LCM is 12
4. Find the LCM of each total valance & place it above the arrow here LCM is 12
3 4 6 6
4Al+ 3O2 → 2Al2 O3
LCM

C. Balancing Chemical equations using algebraic method

 This method of Chemical equation involves assigning algebraic variables as stoichiometric coefficients to each
species in the unbalance Chemical equation.
Example:
1. Write the unbalance equation with the correct symbols of the reactants & products
H2 + N2→ NH3 (unbalance equation)
2. Assigning algebraic variables to each species as coefficient (a, b, c) in the unbalanced equation.
aN2 +bH2 +→ cNH3
N, 2a =c( subscript of N is in the left side and 1 in the right side)
H, 2b = 3c (subscript of H is 2 in the left side and 3 in the right side)
3. Choose the smallest variable & assign arbitrary number in order to determine the remain variable
A =1, c=2xa, 2b =3c
C=2x1 =2, 2b =3x2 =6
Then b =3
Therefore N2 +3H2 +→ 2NH3
1.3 Types of chemical reaction
 There are four types of chemical reactions. These are
o Direct Combination reaction
o Decomposition reaction
o Displacement reaction
o Double displacement reaction
A. Direct Combination reaction
 Combination reactions are those reactions in which two types of pure substances react directly & form a single
substance. In combination reaction two elements, two compounds, or an element & compounds react to form a
single compound.
A + B → AB
Example1 2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl Example2 CaO + CO2 → CaCO3
Element element compound Compound compound compound
1. Note that in the above reaction, there is a single product.
B. Decomposition reaction
 Decomposition reaction (analysis) is a reaction that involves the breaking down of a single compounds into two or
more elements or simpler compounds.
 By using heat( delta) ( thermal decomposition )
 Light (photo decomposition)
 Electricity (electrical decomposition)
 A catalyst
AB → A + B

Example: 2HgO(s) Heat→2Hg (l) +O2 (g)

2KClO3(s) Heat→2KCl(s) + O2 (g)
 C. Single Displacement reaction
 A reaction in which one element displaces by another element from its compound is known as Single Displacement
reaction. Such a reaction is represented by the following two general forms.
1. A + BC → B + AC
If A is a metal, it will displace B form AC, Provided A is a more active metal than B.
2. A + BC →BA +C
If A is a non-metal, it will displace C form BA, Provided A is a more active non-metal than C. in general a more
reactive element displaces a less reactive element from
Example Single Displacement reaction
 Active metal displace hydrogen from acids
Reactive metals such as potassium, Calcium, Sodium & Zinc displace hydrogen gas from dilute acids. For
example Zinc is an active metal, it displaces hydrogen from hydrochloric acid, but Copper metal cannot do so
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
Cu + HCl → No reaction
 Reactive metals such as potassium, Calcium & Sodium react vigorously with water to displace hydrogen
2Na + H2O → 2NaOH +H2
Ca +2H2O → Ca (OH)2 +H2
 A more active metal displace a less active metal
Zinc displace Copper from copper (ll) sulphate Solutions
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
Iron displace Copper from copper (ll) sulphate Solutions
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
D. Double displacement reaction
 A Double displacement reaction is a reaction in which two compounds react together to form two new compounds
by exchange of the positive & negative ions of each reactant. Such a reaction is also known as double displacement
reaction or metathesis.
AB + CD →AD + CB
1. Example: the two soluble compounds NaCl & AgNO3 react to produce an in soluble precipitate of AgCl & a
Soluble NaNO3 Solution.
1. NaCl (aq) + AgNO3 (aq) →. NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (aq)
Soluble soluble insoluble soluble
 When aqueous solution of BaCl2 & Na2SO4 reacts a precipitate of BaSO4 is formed.
2. BaCl2 + Na2SO4→ BaSO4 + 2NaCl
Soluble soluble insoluble soluble
 When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to s6dium carbonate double displacement reaction takes place. In this
reaction carbon dioxide gas is produced.
3. Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
1.4 oxidation and reduction reaction
 oxidation-reduction
 an oxidation is defined as the loss of one or more electrons by an atom
 Reduction is the gain of one or more electrons by an atom.
 Oxidation and Reduction occur simultaneously.
Example: Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
Zn + Cu2+→ Zn2++Cu
 oxidation is increase in the oxidation number of an element and reduction is a decrease in the oxidation No
For example: Cu0 +2Ag+→ Cu2++2Ag0
NB: the oxidation number of copper is increased from 0 to +2 and thus copper is oxidized.
The oxidation number of sliver is decreased from +1 to 0, and therefore sliver is reduced.

1.4.1 Oxidation number or Oxidation state

 Oxidation number or Oxidation state is the number of electron that an atom appears to have gained or loss when it
is combined with other atom.
 Oxidation number could be integers including zero and fractional numbers.
Rule for assigning Oxidation number
 Rule 1. Oxidation state an uncombined element is zero. This applies for polyatomic molecule like S 8, P4 and large
structures of carbon and silicon each have an Oxidation state of zero.
Rule 2 the Oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion.
Example Na+1, Mg+2, S-2
Rule 3 the Oxidation number of oxygen in a compound is usually -2 except in the following cases.
Exception
Oxidation number of oxygen in
Peroxide is -1 Na2O2
Superoxide is -1/2 KO2
Oxygen diflouride is +2 OF2
Rule 4 the Oxidation number of hydrogen in its entire compounds is +1 except in metal hydride,
(Like NaH, CaH2 &AlH3) where its Oxidation number is-1
Rule 5 the sum of the Oxidation number of all the atoms in a neutral compound is zero.
Example +1 +6 -2
H2SO4 =(+2) +(+6) +(-8) =0
Rule 6 in polyatomic ion, the sum of the Oxidation number of the constituent atoms equal the charge on the ion.
Example +6 -2
(SO4)-2, =( +6) +(-8) =-2
Rule 7 elements of group lA have +1 and group llA have +2 Oxidation states in all of their compounds.
Rule 8 in a compounds the more electronegative element is assigned a negative Oxidation number, and the less
Electronegative element is assigned a positive Oxidation number.
Example: assign Oxidation number to all element in
HNO3
Cr2O72-
MnO4-
Ca (H2PO4)2
1. HNO3 according to rule 4 Oxidation number of H =+1 thus the other group (the nitrate ion) must have a net
Oxidation number of -1. Oxidation number of nitrogen, then the nitrate ion can be written as
X 2-
NO3 or x+ -6 =-1 =+5
2. Cr2O72- from the rule 6 we see that the sum of the Oxidation number in the dichromate ion Cr 2O72 must be -
2 .we know that the Oxidation number of oxygen is -2 , so what remains is to determine the Oxidation number
of Cr ,which we call. The dichromate ion can be written as
Y 2-
[Cr2O72-] , 2y+7 x-2 , y =+6
3. MnO 4 let the Oxidation number of Mn be X MxO2-.the sum of the Oxidation number of Mn &O in
-

MnO-4 is -1 (rule 6) Therefore the oxidation number of Mn in mnO-4 is +7

4. (H2PO4)2 the oxidation number of Ca is +2. Let, the oxidation number of P be X
Ca (H2PO4)2
+2+(4×(+1))+(2×x)+(8×(–2))=0

2+4+2x–16=0

2x–10=0orx=+5
Hence, the oxidation number of P in Ca (H2PO4)2is+5. Ca

OxidizingandReducingAgents
 Whenever one substance lose an electron is oxidized & another must gain that electron (be reduced).
 The substance that gives up an electron cause reduction is called reducing agent.
 The substance that gains an electron cause the oxidation is called oxidizing agent.
Reducing agent oxidizing agent
o Lose one or more electron 1. gain one or more electron
o Cause reduction 2. cause oxidation
o Undergo reduction 3. Undergo oxidation
o Became more positive 4. Became more negative
  Oxidation states in a compounds or ions if one of it elements is in its higher oxidation states then it is oxidized
agent.
 If an element of a compounds or ion is in its lower oxidation state, then it is a reducing agent.
Example: oxidizing agent KMn+7O4, NaCl+7O4, K2Cr2+6O7
Reducing agents Fe+3S, C+2O, Na2S+4O3,
1.4.3 Analyzing Redox reactions
 Oxidation and reduction or Redox reactions occur simultaneously in a given reaction.
Example: identify the reducing & oxidizing agents in the following balanced Redox reactions:
2Fe +3O3 →Fe2O3
Assign Oxidation states of the reactants & products then identify the species oxidized & reduced.
0 0 +3 -3
2Fe +3O3 → Fe2O3
 Fe is oxidized from 0 to +3
O is reduced from o to -2
Therefore Fe is reducing agent & O2 is oxidizing agent.
 Mg + 2HCl→ MgCl2 +H2
Mg0 +2H+1Cl-1 → Mg+2Cl-2 +H02
Mg is oxidized from 0 to +2 Therefore Mg is reducing agent.
H is reduced from +1 to 0 Therefore HCl is oxidizing agent.
1.4.4 Balancing Redox reactions: oxidation number –change method
 For the oxidation number –change method start with the unbalanced equation. The example below is for the
reaction of iron (III) oxide with carbon monoxide.
Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + CO2
1. Assign Oxidation number to each of the ato0s in the equation & write the numbers above the atom.
+3 -2 +2 -2 0 +4 -2
Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + CO2
2. Identify the atom that are oxidized & those that are reduced. In the ab6ve equation , the C atom is oxidized from +2
to +4. The Fe atom is being reduced from + 3 to 0.
3. Use a line to connect the atoms that are undergoing a change in oxidation number. On the line, write the oxidation
–number change.
-3
+3 -2 +2 -2 0 +4 -2
Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + CO2
+2
4. Use coefficients to make the total increase in oxidation number equal to the total decrease in oxidation number. In
this case the least common multiple of 2 & 3 is 6.
-3 x2 =6 the oxidation number decrease should be multiple by 2

+3 -2 +2 -2 0 +4 -2
Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + CO2
+2x 3 =6 the oxidation number increase should be multiple by 3
5. Check whether each element is balanced
Fe2O3 +3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
Non-Redox reactions
 Non-Redox reactions are chemical reactions where the oxidation states of chemical elements remain unchanged in
reactants & products. therefore reactions in which neither oxidation nor reduction take place or no species either
gains or loses electrons are non -Redox reaction
Example: Na2SO4 +CaCl2 →CaSO4 +2NaCl
CaCO3 →CaO +CO3
KOH + HNO3 →KNO3 + H2O
1.5 Molecular and formula masses the mole concept and Chemical formula
1.5.1Molecular masses (MM) formula mass (FM)
 A molecular mass (MM) is the sum of the masses of all atoms present in a molecule.
Example1: MM H2O= 2x1amu (hydrogen) +16amu (oxygen atom) =18
2: MM of CO2 =12amu (1carbonatom)+2x16amu(2oxygen atom)=44amu
 Formula mass (FM) is the sum of the all atomic present in the formula unit of the compound, whether it
 is molecular or ionic but formula mass is used mostly for ionic compounds.
Example 1: FM of NaCl=23amu (1 sodium atom) +35.5amu (chlorine atom) =58.5
2: FM o Ca (OH) 2 =40amu (Ca) +2x [16amu (1O) +2 amu (2H) =74amu

1.5.2 The mole concept

A mole is defined as the number of a substance that contains the same number of entities as there are atoms
exactly 12 g of carbon -12.12g carbon contains 6.022x1023atoms.this number is known as Avogadro’s
numbers.
Example:1mole of H2O equals 6.022x1023 molecules of H2O 1mole of NaCl equals 6.022x1023 formula units of NaCl
 Molar mass is the molecular mass or formula mass expressed in gram. it is the mass of 1mole of a substance.
Molar mass of substance A=mass of one mole of A=6.022x1023 units of substance A

Example: 1 Molar mass of H2O =18g=mass of 1mole of H2O= 6.022x1023 molecules of H2O
2 Molar mass of NaCl =58.5g = mass of 1mole of NaCl =6.022x1023 formula unit of NaCl
1.5.3 Chemical formulas –Empirical & molecular Formula
 Chemical formulas are used to express the composition in term of chemical symbols.
o There are two types of formulas those are :
1) Empirical Formula
2) molecular Formula
 Empirical Formula (simplest formula) for a compound is the formula of substance written with the smallest
ratio (Whole number ratio) subscripts.
 Molecular Formula is the actual formula that tells you the exact number of atoms of different elements
Present in a molecule.
Example: Empirical Formula molecular Formula
Benzene CH C6H6
Glucose CH2O C6H12O6
Note that the Empirical Formula, merely tells you the ratio of numbers of atoms in the compound.
Percent compositions by mass (%) tell you what percent of each element is present in a compound. Thus, it helps in
Chemical analysis of the given compound.
 Percentage compositions of a given compound is defined as the ratio of the amount of individual
elements present in the compound multiplied by 100.
Percentage compositions of an element = n x molar mass of the element X100
Molar mass of compound
Where n is the number of moles of the element in 1mole of the compound.
Example: in 1mole hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)there are 2moles of hydrogen atom & 2mole of O atoms
The molar masses of H2O2, H, & O are 34.02g, 1.008g & 16g respectively.therfore the percent composition of
H2O2 is calculating as follows.
%H = 2x1.008g H =5.926% , O% =2x 16g =94.06%
34.02g H2O2 34.02g H2O2
Determination of empirical &molecular formulas
Steps Determine of empirical formulas
1. Derive the number of moles of each element from its mass. Masses of elements may be given in terms of percent
composition of elements or grams.
2. Dived each elements molar amount by the smallest molar amount to yield subscripts for a tentative empirical
formulas.
3. Multiply all coefficients by an integer, if necessary, to ensure that the smallest whole number ratio of subscripts is
obtained.
Example1: what is the empirical formulas of a compound that contained 43.6% p& 56.4% O?
Solution:
step1: derivation of moles of each element,
NO. of mole each element =given mass of the element
Molar mass of the element
NO. Of mole of P =43.6g/31.0g/mole =1.41mol
NO. Of mole of O =56.4g/16g/mol =3.53mol
2. Smallest molar amount is 1.41
P =1.41/1.41 =1 ,O =3.53/1.41 =2.5
 3. Multiply both by 2 to convert into whole number P =2x1 =2 ,O =2x2.5 =5
Empirical formula = (P2O5)
Example2: a compound shows that a compound contains 79.9 % carbon & 20.1% of hydrogen. what is the
empirical formulas of compound?
Solution:
step1: C =(79.9g/12g/mol) =6.7mol ,H =20.1g/1g/mol =20.1mol
step2: 6.7mol/6.7mol =1, H =20.1/6.7 =3
step3: empirical formulas =CH3
Molecular formula = empirical formulas x n

n = molar mass of Molecular formula

Molar mass of empirical formulas
Example3: what is the Molecular formulas of the oxide of phosphorus that has the empirical formulas P2O5if
the molar mass of this compound is 284 ?
Solution:
Molar mass of P2O5 =142 n =284/142 =2
Therefore Molecular formula = (P2O5)2
Example: the compound ethylene glycol is often used as antifreeze. It contains 38.7% carbon ,9.75% ,hydrogen ,& the rest
Oxygen. The molecular weight of ethylene glycol is 62.07g.what is the molecular formula of ethylene glycol?
Solution
1. Calculate the mole 6f each element present
No of mole carbon =given mass of carbon =38.7g/12.0g/mol =3.22mol
Molar mass of carbon
No of mole hydrogen =given mass of Hydrogen =9.75g/1.008g/mol =9.67mol
Molar mass of Hydrogen
No of mole oxygen =given mass of oxygen =51.55g/16.01g/mol =3.22mol
Molar mass of oxygen
2. Calculate the ratio of molecular weight to empirical formulas weight. The molecular weight is given. the
empirical formulas is CH3O,so the empirical formula weight is 12.01 +3(1.008) +16 =31.03
n = molecular mass =62.07g/31.03g/mol =2
Empirical formula mass
Therefore, the molecular formula is twice the empirical formula C2H6O2

1.6 stoichiometry
 Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative composition of substances & the relationship that exists
between the reactant & the product involved in chemical reactions.
 In other words, Stoichiometry is the study of the amount or ration of moles mass, or volume (for gas) of
reactant & products.
Stoichiometric calculations are based on the following two major principles.
A. The composition of any substances in the chemical equation should be expressed by a definite formula.
B. The law of conservation of mass must be obeyed (the mass of reactants equals the mass of products).
1.6.1 Molar ratios in balanced chemical equation
 A balanced chemical equation provides information about the nature
o Masses,
o number of moles ,
o Number of molecules /atoms of reactants & products.
Example: H2 +N2 → 2NH3
The equation can also represent the reaction of 3mole (3x6.022 x10m23molecules) of H2 with 1 mole
(1x6.022x1023molecules) of N2 to yield 2 moles (2 x6.022 x1023molecules) of NH3.
1 molecule N2 +3 molecule H2 → 2 molecule NH3 (molecular interpretation)
1mole N2 +3 mole H2→ 2 mole NH3 (molar interpretation)
28.0g N2 +3 x2.0g H2→ 2x17.0g NH3 (mass interpretation)
1.6.2 mass-mass relationships
 There are two methods for solving mass-mass problems. These are :
 o Mass ratio
o Mole ratio
 The mass –ratio method in this method the mass of one substance is determined from the given mass of the
other substance using the following steps.
1) Write the balanced chemical equation.
2) Place the given mass above the corresponding formula, and x above the formula of the substance whose
mass is to be determined.
3) Write the total molar mass of the substances below the formula of each substance.(total molar mass is the
molar mass of the substance multiplied by its coefficient).
4) Set up the proportion
5) Solve for the unknown mass, x.
Example: how many gram of aluminum metal must be heated to produce 20.4g of aluminum oxide?
Solution
Step1: 4Al +3O2 →2Al2O3
Step2: x 20.4g
4Al +3O2 →2Al2O3
Step3: x 20.4g
4Al +3O2 →2Al2O3
108 204
Step4: x = 20.4g
108 204
Step5: x =20.4g/204g x108g, x =10.8g
Note that Stoichiometric problems can also be solved using the mole ratio or molar mass as conversion
factors. The numbers in a conversion factor come from the coefficient of the balanced chemical equation.
 In general for mole –mole problem
Mole A x mole ratio =mole B
 Mass- Mass problems
Gram A x 1mole A x mole B x molar mass B =gram B
Molar mass A mole A mole B
In the above example, coefficients of Al & Al2O3 are 4 & 2 respectively.
Therefore conversion factor =mole ratio =4mol Al/mol O2
Given molar masses, 1mol Al2O3 =102g, 1mole Al =27g
The conversion steps are summarized as follows:
Grams of Al2O3 → mol Al2O3 → mole of Al → gram of Al
↓ ↓ ↓
Conversion factor = molar mass of Al2O3 mole ratio molar mass of Al
20.4g x 1mole Al2O3 x 4 mole Al x 27g Al =108g
102g Al2O3 2mole Al2O3 mole Al

Mole ratio method in this method, calculation are made in terms of moles, therefore the given mass is converted
into mole.
Follow the steps given below to solve problems of mass- mass relationship using mole ratio method.
1 Write the balanced chemical equation.
2 Convert the given mass to moles & write the obtained moles & the required quantity ,x, above the formulas
of the respective substance .
3 Place the coefficients as the number of moles under the formulas of each substances involved.
4 Set up the proportion
5 Solve for the unknown value, x, & convert the moles obtained into mass.
Example: How many grams of calcium oxide are needed to react completely with 22g of carbon dioxide?
Solution: step 1: CaO +CO2 →CaCO3
Step 2: mole of CO2 =given mass /molar mass =22g/44g/mole =0.5mol
Step 3 : x 0.5mol
CaO +CO2 →CaCO3
1mol 1mol
Step 4: X/1mol =0.5mol/1mol¿> ¿x =0.5mol
Step 5: convert the moles into grams of CaO
 Mass of CaO produced =No of mole CaO X Molar mass CaO
=0.5mol x 56g/mol =28g
Solve the above problem using conversion factor, gram CO2→ mole CO2 →mole CaO→ gram CaO
22g CO2 x 1mol CO2 x 1mol CaO x 56g CaO =28g CaO

44g CO2 1mol CO2 1mol CaO

Note that: although mass –mass & mole –mole stoichiometric problems are more common; there are also mass-mole
and mole –mass problem.
 In mole –mass problems the amount of one substance is given in mole & the mass of another substance is
determined .usually in gram & in mass-mole problems. The mass of one substance is given, usually in gram &
amount of another substance is determined in mole.
o Mol 1st substance → mol 2nd substance →mass 2nd substance
o Mass 1st substance → mol 2nd substance →mol 2nd substance
1.6.3 Volume –volume relationship
 At Standard Temperature (00C) and Pressure (1atm) or STP, one mole of any gas occupies22.4liters.This, 22.4 liters is
known as molar volume at STP.
 Avogadro’s Law. Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of different gases, under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, contains equal number of molecules.
 According to this law ,the volume of a gas is proportional to the number of molecules (moles) of the gas at
STP as shown below:
V~ n; where V is the volume and n is the number of moles of gas
 In Volume–volume problems, the volume of one substance is given and the volume of the other substance
is calculated.
Example 1.30: What volume of oxygen will react with methane to produce 44.8 liters of carbon dioxide at STP?
Step1:CH4+2O2→ 2H2O+CO2
Step2: Place the given volume and the required volume, x above the corresponding formulas.
X 44.8L
CH4+2O2→2H2O+CO2
44.8L 22.4L
Step3: Write the total molar volume(22.4Lmultiplied by any coefficient) below the formulas.
Step4: x/44.8L=(44.8L)/(22.4L)⟹ x=44.8/22.4x44.8L=89.6L
Step5: Solve for the unknown volume, x
x=89.6L of oxygen is needed.

1.6.4Mass–VolumeRelationships
 In mass-volume problems, either the mass of one substance is given and the volume of the other is required or the volume
of one substance is given and the mass of the other one is required.
 The steps to solve such type of problems are the same as the previous steps except putting the masses on one
side and the volume so n the other side of the equality sign.
Example1.31:Howmanygramsofmagnesiumshouldreactwithsulfuricacidto

Produce 5.6L of hydrogen at STP?

Solution:
Step1: Mg+H2SO4→H2
X 5.6L
Step2: Mg+H2SO4→MgSO4 +H2
X 5.6L
Step3: Mg+ H2SO4→MgSO4+H2
24g 22.4L
Step4: x/24g=5.6L/22.4 L
 ⟹x=6g
Step5: x=6g of magnesium is needed

Limiting and Excess Reactants

 In a chemical reaction involving two reactants, the reaction will stop when all of one reactant has been
completely consumed no matter how much of these of the second reactant remain. The reactant
completely consumed first in a reaction is called the limiting reactant, because it limits or determines the
amount of product that can be formed. When the limiting reactant is completely consumed, no more
products can be formed.

 Note that: Yield of the product is the one calculated using the limiting reactant and it is the smallest.
Example 1.32: Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid by the following reaction:
Mg+2HCl→MgCl2+H2
If 0.30 mol Mg is added to hydrochloric acid containing 0.52 mol HCl, how many moles of H2
are produced?
Solution:
Here there are 0.3mol of Mg and 0.52 mol of HCl. Therefore, first determine the limiting
reactant .Calculate the yield of H2(product) using both reactants, the reactant that gives lower yield is
the limiting reactant and the amount obtained by the limiting reactant is the yield of the product.

A. Using the quantity of Mg B. Using the quantity of HCl

0.3mol/1mol=x/1mol 0.52mol/2mol=x/1mol
0.3mol/1 mol= x/1 mol
⇒x=0.3molofH2
0.52mol/2mol=x/1 mol
⇒x=0.26molofH2
H2 produced using HCl is less than H2 produced using Mg.
Hence, HCl is the limiting reactant and Mg is the excess reactant. The number of moles of H2 produced is
equal to the quantity of H2 obtained using HCl (limiting reactant) which is 0.26 mol.
Example1.33: In a process for producing acetic acid, oxygen gas is bubbled into acetaldehyde, CH3CHO,
Containingmanganese (II) acetate (catalyst) under pressure at 600C.
2CH3CHO+O2→2HC2H3O2

In a laboratory test of this reaction, 20.0gCH3CHOand10.0gO2were put into a reaction vessel. A.

How many grams of acetic acid can be produced? B. How many grams of the excess reactant remain
after the reaction is complete?
Solution:
No of moles of CH3CHO = given mass 20g/44g/mol ⇒0.454mol
Molar mass
No of moles of O2 = given mass 10g/32g/mol ⇒0.312mol
Molar Mass
Calculate the amount of HC2H3O2producedby0.454mol.CH3CHOand0.312mol O2in order to decide
the limiting reactant
A. Using the quantity of CH3CHO B. Using the quantity of O2
0.454mol x 0.312 mol x
2CH3CHO+O2→2HC2H3O2 2CH3CHO+O2→2HC2H3O2
2 mol 2 mole
1 mol 2 mol
 0.454mol/2mol=x/2mol 0.312mol/1mol=x/2mol

⟹x=0.454molofH2 ⟹x=0.624molofH2
Therefore, the limiting reactant is acetaldehyde, CH3CHO. It is the reactant that gives lower yield in the
above reaction. Oxygen is the excess reactant in the above reaction since it gives higher yield. Number
of moles of HC2H3O2produced=0.454mol
A. Amount of HC2H3O2produced in grams=0.454molx60g/mol=27.2g
B. Calculate the amount of oxygen consumed using the product obtained by the Limiting reactant

X 0 .454 mol
CH3CHO + O2→ 2HC2H3O2
1 mol 2 mol
Amount of O2 consumed, x =0.454molx1 mol/2mol=0.227 mol we started with 10 g of O2or 0.312 mol, so the
excess O2= 0.312 - 0.227 = 0.085mol or2.7 g.

Theoretical, Actual and Percentage Yields

 The actual yield (experimentally determined yield) of a product is usually less than the theoretical yield (calculated
yield). The theoretical yield is the calculated amount of product that would be obtained if the reaction proceeds
completely. The measured amount of product obtained in any chemical reaction is known as the actual yield.

 The percentage yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield multiplied by 100.
Actual yield
Percentage yield= ×100%
Theoretical yield
Example1.34: What is the percent yield if24.8gofCaCO3is heated to give13.1gofCaO?
Solution
The actual yield o fCaO (given in the problem!) is13.1g Determine the theoretical
yield using mass-mass relationship
28.4g X
CaCO3→CaO+CO2
100g 56g
X/ (56g) =(24.8g)/(100g)⟹x=13.9gisthetheoreticalyieldofCaO
Actual yield of CaO ×
Percentage yield= 100%
CaO
Theoretical yield
Percentage yield o fCaO=(13.1g)/(13.9g)×100=94.2%

o Quiz 5%
o Grade 10th D
o Date/ 24/02/2018
Choose the correct answer from the given alternative (10th D)
1. Which of the following is not a chemical change?
A. Rusting of iron B. Boiling of water C. burning of magnesium D. digesting of food
2. Which of the following is not a physical change?
A. Melting of ice B. Burning of paper C. dissolution of salt in water D. sublimation of iodine
3. Which of the following is decomposition reaction?
A. 2Na +Cl2 →2NaCl B.CaCO3 →CaO +CO2 C.2NaCl +AgNO3 → NaNO3 +AgCl D.N2 +H2 →2NH3
4. The law of conservation mass was proposed by
A. Dalton B.Lavoisier C. Proust D. Gay-lussac
5. What is the oxidation number of O in CaCO3?
a. +2 B. +3 C. -3 D. +4
 o Quiz 5%
o Grade 10th E
o Date/ 24/02/2018

Choose the correct answer from the given alternative

1. Which of the following is single displacement reaction?
a. CaCO3 →CaO +CO2 B. N2 +H2 →2NH3 C. Zn +CuSO4 →ZnSO4 D. all
2. What is the oxidation number of C in CaCO3?
a. +2 B. +3 C. +6 D. +4
3. Which of the following is a mixture?>
a. Ice B. steam C. rain water D. distilled water
4. Which of the following is a physical change?
a. Rusting of iron B. Boiling of water C. burning of magnesium D. digesting of food
5. Which of the following is a chemical change except?
a. ` Rain water B. burning of magnesium C. Rusting of iron D. digesting of food

UNIT TWO
SOLUTIUN
 Note: Mixtures have the following general properties
 In a mixture each component keeps its original properties.
 These parathion of components can be easily done.
 The proportion of the components is variable.
 Mixtures can be converted into component substances by physical process and vice versa.
Whereas a substance is a single kind of matter that has definite physical and chemical
properties regardless of its source or the way it is made and cannot be separated into other
kinds matter by any physical process. Thus, substances (compounds and elements) are inter-
converted through chemical process only
HeterogeneousandHomogeneousMixtures
 Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances in which the individual substances keep their Properties.
 Mixtures are part of your daily life. The air you breathe
 A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is the same throughout.
i.e., it has no visible boundaries because the components are mixed as individual atoms, ion sand
molecules
 A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that consists of physically distinct parts,
each with different properties. This type of mixtures has at least two visible phases .

Examples of mixture are :

 oil and water
 wood ash and water
 sand and water

2.1.1Suspensions, Solutions, Colloids

A. Suspensions
 Mixtures can further be classified into
 o suspensions,
o colloids, and
o Solutions.
 A suspension is defined as a heterogeneous mixture in which the solid particles are spread
throughout the liquid without dissolving in it.
 A mixture of chalk and water, sand and water, mixture of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and water,
muddy water are some examples.

B. Solutions
 Solutions are all around us. The air we breathe and much of what we drink for example,
o Soda,
o coffee, and
o tea, and

o The fluids in our body are all solutions.

 A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute dissolved in a solvent. Because of
dissolution of solute in solvent, the particles in solution are of the size of individual atoms, molecules or ions.
The solvent part of the solution is usually a liquid but can be a gas or a solid (see types of solutions in
subsequent section).
 Generally, the major component of the solution is called solvent, and the minor component is called solute. If
both components in a solution are 50%, the term solute can be assigned to either component.
 When a gaseous or solid material dissolves in a liquid, the gas or solid material is called the
solute.
 When two liquids dissolve in each other, the major component is called the solvent and the minor component is called
the solute.

Properties of Solutions
 A solution has a single uniform phase and has no visible boundaries because the components are individual
atoms, ions, or molecules. These components do not settle up on standing or separate by filtration.

 The particles of a solution are very small that they can pass through the pores of even fine filter paper.
So, solute cannot be separated from the solvent by filtration.
 The solutions are very stable.

Types of Solutions
 Although we usually think of solutions as liquid, they can exist in all three physical states:
o solid,
o liquid, and
o Gas.
i. Gaseous solutions: Gaseous solutions are usually described as gas-gas solutions where both
solute and solvent are gases.
 The atmosphere is a gaseous solution that consists of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, water (in the
form of vapor), methane, and some other minor components. The major component (Nitrogen)is regarded as
a solvent and the other components are regarded as solute. Other example is natural gas.
ii. Liquid solutions: Solids, liquid and gases dissolve in a liquid solvent to form liquid
solutions.
 Some examples include
o Carbonated beverage (gas and liquid),
 o alcohol ice beverage (liquid in liquid),and
o Sea water (solid in liquid).
 Note that in liquid solutions the solute can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas but the solvent is
always a liquid.
iii. Solid solutions: Many alloys, ceramics, and polymer blends are solid solutions. Solid
solutions have no restriction on the state of the solute but the solvent has to be solid.
o Alloys are solid-solid solutions.
o Dental filling solution is a good example of liquid (mercury)-solid (silver) solution.
Other examples of solid solutions is
o H2 in Pd (gas in solid; used for hydrogen storage).
C. Colloids
 A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which insoluble particles of one or more substances
are suspended uniformly throughout another substance.

Properties of Colloids
 A colloid (or colloidal solution) appears to be homogeneous but actually, it is
heterogeneous upon closer inspection.
 The size of particles in a colloid is bigger than those in a true solution but smaller than those in a
suspension. It is between 1 nm and 100 nm in diameter.
 The particles of a colloid can pass through a filter paper. So, a colloid can not be separated by
filtration.
 There are two phases in colloidal solution. They are known as the dispersed phase and the
dispersion medium. The component present in smaller proportions is the dispersed phase while
the one present in greater proportion is the dispersion medium.
 Colloids are quite stable. The particles do not separate on keeping.
 A colloid (or a colloidal solution)scatters a beam of light passing through it (because its
particles are fairly large). As a result, these rays as well as colloidal particles become visible. The
phenomenon in which the particle in a colloid scatters the beams of light that are directed at them
and make the path of the light beam visible is called Tyndall effect.

Types of Colloids
 Depending up on the state of matter present in the dispersed (internal) and dispersion (external) medium
there are 8 different types of colloidal solutions

. Types of colloids.
Dispersed Dispersing Type Example
Phase Medium
Liquid Gas Aerosol
Fog, clouds, mist
Solid Gas Aerosol
Smoke, automobile exhaust
Gas Liquid Foam
Shaving cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsion
Milk, face cream
Solid Liquid Sol
Milk of magnesia, mud
Gas Solid Foam
Foam, rubber, sponge,
pumice
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Solid Solid Solid sol Colored Gemstone, milky
glass
In water solution, the stearate ions associate into micelles in which the hydrocarbon
 end point inward toward one another and away from the water, and ion ice carboxyl groups are on
the outside of the micelle facing the water(Figure2.2).The cleansing action of soap occurs because oil
and grease can be absorbed into the hydrophobic center of the soap micelles and washed away.

The Solution Process

 A solution is formed when the solute particles are completely dissolved in the solvent. We have
noted previously that gases mix freely. But the formation of liquid and solid solutions requires overcoming
the solute-solute and solvent-solvent inter-particle forces of attraction before the mixing step. Because the
solute as well as the solvent particles are held to each other by intermolecular forces in liquid and solid state.
 The solution process thus involves three basic steps;
i. Breaking up the solute-solute inter-particle forces
ii. Breaking up the solvent-solvent inter-particles forces
iii. Formation of solute-solvent interaction.
Note that: the formation of a solution from a solute and a solvent is a physical process, not a chemical change.

Liquid Solutions and Inter-particle Forces of Attraction

 When one substance (the solute) dissolves in another (the solvent), particles of the solute disperse throughout the solvent.
The solute particles occupy positions that are normally taken by solvent molecules.

The ease with which a solute particle replaces a solvent molecule depends on the relative strengths of
three types of interactions (Figure 2.3):
🖙 solute-solute interaction
🖙 solvent-solvent interaction
🖙 solute-solvent interaction
Expanded soluteSolute Solvent Expanded Solvent

Step1 Step2

Step3 Step3
Solutio
n
Solutes dissolve in a solvent
 When the inter-particle forces of interaction between solute molecules and solvent molecules are replaced by solute-
Solvent interactions.

This is explained by the like dissolves like rule which states that when the inter-particle forces within the solute
are similar to those within the solvent, the forces replace each other and a solution forms.

Thus, ionic compounds like NaCl and polar compounds like ethanol (C 2H5OH) dissolve in polar solvents (e.g. H 2O)
and non polar compounds and elements (e.g. hexane, CCl4,I2, oil) dissolve in non polar solvents like hexane
(C6H14), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), and benzene.
Note: Dipole-dipole, dipole-induced dipole, and dispersion forces make up what chemists commonly refer to as
Vander Waals forces,
 Dipole-Dipole Forces
Dipole–dipole forces occur between polar molecules as a result of electrostatic interactions
among dipoles (Figure 2.4(a)). e.g. Solubility of HBr in H2O.

 Dipole–induced Dipole Force

Arise when a polar molecule distorts the electron cloud of a non polar molecule (Figure 2.4(b)). The solubility
in water of atmospheric O2, N2, and noble gases, while limited, is due in part to these forces.Paint
thinners and grease solvents also use them.

 Dispersion Forces (London forces)

Dispersion forces occur between all neighboring molecules and arise because the electron distribution
with in molecules is constantly changing. This type of force is also called instantaneous dipole-induce
ddipole force. It is common to all types of molecules-polar as well as non polar. But it is more important
to account for properties of non polar molecules.
Ion-Dipole Forces
Ion-dipole forces are the
principal force involved when an
ionic compound dissolves in water
(Figure2.5).e.g .NaCl dissolves in
H2O via ion-dipole interaction.

Figure2.5Two types of ion-dipole interaction

 Ion–induced dipole forces, one Ion Non polar molecule
type of charge-induced dipole
A
force, rely on polarizability. They
arise when an ion’s charge distorts
the electron cloud of a nearby δ- δ+
B
non polar molecule
(Figure2.6).This type of force
initiates the binding of the Figure2.6Ion-induceddipoleinteractions.(A) when
Fe2+ion in hemoglobin to an O2 the ion and the non polar molecules are far apart,
molecule entering a red blood (B) when the ion and the non polar molecule get
cell. closer-the non polar molecule gets polarized.

 The Hydrogen Bond

Definition: The hydrogen bond is an attractive interaction between a hydrogen bonded to an
electronegative O, N, or F atom in one molecule and an unshared electron pair on O, N, or F atoms
of another molecule, Figure 2.7.

Figure2.7Hydrogenbondinginwater,acetic acid, and ammonia. Solid lines represent covalent bonds, and dotted lines
represent hydrogen bonds

 Solutions of Ionic Solids in Water

Many ionic compounds are soluble (at least 1 g dissolves in 100 mL water) in water; however, not all
ionic compounds are soluble. For instance, KCl is readily soluble in water whereas AgCl is insoluble. CaCl2 is
slightly (sparingly) soluble. Ionic compounds
That are soluble in water exist in their ionic state as hydrated cations and anions within the solution (See Figure2.8).
For ionic compounds that are not soluble in water, the ions are so strongly attracted to one another in the crystal
lattice that they cannot be broken apart by the partial charges of the water molecules. Thus, for solutions of ionic
solids in liquid the lattice energy (the energy required to separate the ionic solute particles apart from a crystal
lattice) and hydration energy(the energy released when the solute particle is surrounded by the solvent cage) must
be considered

Hydration of Na+ and Cl_ ions as NaCl dissolves in water

 The Solubility Rules for Ionic Solids
 Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a given volume
(usually100mL)of solvent at a given temperature. The solubility rules for common ionic compounds are
listed below.
i. All common salts of the Group 1A elements(such as Na+,K+,Li+)and ammonium,
NH4+, are soluble
ii. All4 common salts containing acetate(CHCOO-),or nitrate(NO-),and most per chlorates (ClO4- )are soluble
iii. All common chlorides 4
(Cl-), bromides (Br-), and iodides (I-) are soluble, except those of Ag+,Pb2+,Cu2+,andHg
2+
.Allcommonfluorides(F-)are soluble, except those Of Pb2+and Group 2A.
2
iv. Allcompoundscontainingsulfate(SO2-)aresoluble,exceptthoseofbarium(Ba), strontium (Sr), lead (Pb),
4
calcium (Ca), silver (Ag), and mercury (Hg)
v. Except for those compounds following rule1, compounds containing carbonate (CO2-), hydroxide (OH-), sulfides
(S2-), oxides (O2-), and phosphates (PO3-) are insoluble.

 Solution of Liquids in Liquids In addition

to the dissolution of ionic compounds in water, solutions can also be made by mixing two compatible
liquids. The liquid in the lower concentration is termed as
Solute, and the one in higher concentration is the solvent. For example, grain alcohol
(CH3CH2OH) is a polar covalent molecule that can mix with water. When two similar liquids (in terms of
polarity) are placed together and are able to mix into a solution, they are said to be miscible. Liquids
that do not share similar characteristics and cannot mix together, on the other hand, are termed
immiscible. For example, oil and water are immiscible because oil is non polar whereas water is polar.
The Rate of Dissolution
 Dissolution is defined as the process through which a solute dissolves in a solvent (e.g. water) to produce a
solution. How fast does a solute dissolve in a given solvent
What are the major factors that affect the rate of dissolution?
The rate of dissolution is the speed with which a solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
This largely depends upon two factors-the inter-particle forces discussed so far and, to a lesser extent on
conditions such as the surface area of the solid solute, and the temperature and the pressure of the system.
When the solvent-solute interactions are stronger than those between solute-solute and solvent-solvent particles,
the dissolution process becomes faster .A good example is dissolution of ethanol (alcohol) in water. The
increasing surface area of the solute will increase the rate of dissolution because it increases the number of
solute particles in contact with the solvent

Energy Changes in Solution Process

For instance, if you mix ammonium chloride in water in a flask, the flask gets cold. But when sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
is mixed in water, the flask gets hot. Why? The reason is attributed to the energy changes that accompany the
dissolution process. Solvation refers to the process of attraction and association of molecules of a solute and a
solvent. Solvation energy is the energy released when solute molecules are solvated by solvent molecules. Salvation in
water is called hydration.Thus, hydration energy is the energy released when solute molecules or ions are solvated by
water molecules

 The heat of solution or enthalpy of solution is defined as the amount of heat released or absorbed during the dissolution
process and can be calculated using the equation

q=m x C g x ΔT Eq2.1

Where q is the amount of energy released or absorbed in Joules(J),m is mass of the solution, ΔT is the
temperature change (Ti-Tf), Cg is the specific heat of solution (J/g. oC) (can be assumed to be the same
as that of water,4.184J/g. oC for dilute
Solutions). The unit of heat of solution is Joule or kJ. Heat (Enthalpy) of solution can either be positive
(endothermic)or negative (exothermic) depending on the observed temperature change.
The molar heat of solution (ΔHsoln) of a substance is the heat absorbed or released when one mole of the substance is
 dissolved in water at constant pressure

ΔHsolution q
= Eq2.2
The number of moles of solute
The enthalpy changes are expressed in kJ/mol for a reaction taking place at standard conditions (a temperature
of298.15K and apressure1atm).
Example2.1: When 5.19 g of NaCO3was dissolved in 75.0 g of water, the temperature of the water rose by3.8oC.

Given Required Solution

Mass solution=mass solute + mass solvent Q and Hsol q=mcΔT=80.19gx
o
3.820 J/g.°C
=5.19g+75.0g=80.19g x (-3.80 C)
An increase of temperature means =-1164.0 Joules
Tf>Ti.Thus, ΔHsol =q/n
ΔT=Ti–Tf=-3.80 C o =-1164.0J/0.0489moles
Number of moles of solute=given mass =-23,803.70J/mole
divided by molar mass ⇒Exothermic
=5.19g/105.99g/mol
= 0.0489mole
To understand the enthalpy changes involved during the dissolution,think of a hypothetical three-step
process happening between two substances: solute and solvent. The three processes are solute-solute, solvent-
solvent, and solute-solvent interactions each accompanied by an enthalpy change:
Step1: Solute particles separate from each other. This step involves over coming intermolecular
attractions, so it is endothermic.
Solute (aggregated) + Heat →Solute(separated) ΔHsolute>0

Step 2: Solvent particles separate from each other. This step also involves overcoming
attractions,soitisendothermic,too.
Solvent (aggregated)+ Heat→ Solvent(separated) ΔHsolvent>0

Step 3: Solute and solvent particles mix and form a solution. The different particles attract each other
and come together, so this step is exothermic:
Solute (separated)+Solvent(separated)→Solution+Heat ΔHmix<0

We combine the three individual enthalpy changes to find the enthalpy of solution(ΔHsoln),the total
enthalpy change that occurs when solute and solvent form a solution:
ΔHsoln=ΔHsolute+ ΔHsolvent + ΔHmix

Endothermic and Exothermic Dissolution Processes

 Depending on the relative magnitude of ΔHsolute+ ΔHsolvent&ΔHmix, the ΔHsolncan be
zero (ideal solution), negative (exothermic) or positive (endothermic).
Ideal Solutions (ΔHsoln=ΔHsolute+ΔHsolvent+ΔHmix=0)

When the strengths of the intermolecular forces of attraction in solute-solute

and solvent-solvent are similar to solute-solvent the solution is formed with no
accompanying energy change. Such a solution is called an ideal solution. A mixture
of ideal gases (or gases such as helium and argon, which closely approach ideal behavior)is an
example of an ideal solution,s ince the entities comprising these gases experience no significant
intermolecular attractions. Ideal solutions may also form when structurally similar liquids are mixed.For
example,mixtures of the alcohols-methanol(CH3OH)
And ethanol (C2H5OH)form ideal solutions, as do mixtures of the hydrocarbons
pentane, C5H12,and hexane, C6H14.
Enthalpy of Hydration (Ionic Solids in Water)
The ΔHsolvent and ΔHmix components of the solution cycle are difficult to measure
individually.Combined,they equal the enthalpy change for salvation or hydration (solvent = water).
Thus, enthalpy changes for separating the water molecules (ΔHsolvent) and mixing the separated solute
with them(ΔHmix) are combined into the heat(or enthalpy)of hydration(ΔHhydr):
ΔHhydr=ΔHsolvent+ΔHmix

Therefore, ΔHsoln=ΔHsolute+ΔHsolvent+ΔHmix=ΔHlat+ΔHhydr
Where ΔHlatis the enthalpy change involved when over coming lattice energy. Solvation energy,
ΔHsolv is the energy released or absorbed when solute particles are completely surrounded by
solvent molecules. When water is used as the solvent,
We use the term hydration energy, ΔH hyd, rather than the more general term solvation energy.
Hydration is usually exothermic, so heat is released when water molecules completely surround solute
particles.

What Is Lattice Energy ?How Can It Affect the Solubility of Ionic Solids?
Lattice energy, ΔHlat,is the energy required to break up the ions apart from crystal lattice. Breaking
up the lattice is an endothermic process. Hydration of ions favors the dissolution of an ionic solid in water.
Lattice energy works against the solution process (Figure2.9), so an ionic solid with relatively large lattice
energy is usually insoluble.

Hydration energy

Lattice energy

Figure2.9The effectsof lattice energy and hydration energy on the solution process of ionic solids.
Lattice energies depend on the charge on the ions and also the distance between the centers of the
neighboring positive and negativeions.As the magnitude of the charge on the ions increases the lattice
energy also increases. For this reason, you can expect substances with single charged ions to be more
comparatively soluble, and those with multiple charged ions to be less soluble in water. Lattice energy is
inversely proportional to
the inter-particle distance between the centers of the two ions. Thus, CsCl has less lattice energy than
NaCl.
 Examples of Endothermic and Exothermic Processes
When sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water, the solution be comes hot (the solution process is
exothermic). On the other hand, when ammonium nitrate is dissolved in water, the solution becomes very cold
(the solution process is endothermic). This cooling effect from the dissolving of ammonium nitrate in
water is exploited in instant cold packs used in hospitals. An instant cold pack consists of a bag of
NH4NO3 crystals inside a bag of water (Figure 2.10). When the inner bag is broken, NH4NO3 dissolves in
the water. Heat is absorbed, so the bag feels cold. Hot packs, by contrast, containing either CaCl2 or
MgSO4, produce heat when the salts dissolve in water (Figure2.10).

Figure2.10The instant cold compress and hot compresses

Note: Enthalpy of solution is only one part of the driving force in the formation of solutions; the other
part is the entropy of solution. You will learn about entropy at higher levels.

 Enthalpy (heat)of solution can be determined in the laboratory by measuring the temperature change
of the solvent when solute is added. A calorimeter is a device used to measure the amount of heat
involved in a chemical or physical process.

Solubility as an Equilibrium Process

 Solubility as the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved in a given volume (usually 100 mL) of solvent at a
given temperature
 Recrystallization is the process of dissolved solute returning to the solid state. At some point the rate at which the
solid salt is dissolving becomes equal to the rate at which the dissolved solute is recrystallizing.
 When that point is reached, the total amount of dissolved salt remains unchanged-equilibrium is established.
 Solution equilibrium is the physical state described by the opposing processes of dissolution and
recrystallization occurring at the same rate.

Dissolution
Solid (solute) Dissolved ions Crystallization

Unsaturated, Saturated, and Supersaturated Solutions

 An unsaturated solution contains less than the equilibrium concentration of dissolved solute. If we
add more solute, it will continue to dissolve until the solution is saturated.
 A saturated solution is at equilibrium and contains the maximum amount of a solute in a given solvent, at a
specific temperature in the presence of undissolved solute. A simple analogy is “when you have eaten your
feel, you are saturated!” Therefore, if you filter off the solution and add more solute, it doesn’t dissolve (Figure
2.12).
 Figure2.12 Illustrates the formation of saturated solution.(a) excess solid added to a solvent(b) The solute starts to
dissolve (c) the solute continues to dissolve (d) No more solute is dissolving indicating that the process has
reached a dynamic equilibrium where the rate of dissolution is equal to the rate of crystallization.
 A supersaturated solution contains more than the equilibrium concentration and is unstable
relative to the saturated solution.

Factors Affecting Solubility of Substances

 Solubility of a substance in a given solvent depends on
o inter-particle forces,
o surface area,
o temperature, and
o Pressure (for gases only).

A. Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Solids

 Generally, solubility increases when temperature increases. For instance, the solubility of sodium sulfate, Na2SO4, rises
more than tenfold when the temperature rises from 0°C to 32.4°C, where it reaches a maximum of
49.7gNa2SO4per100g water

B. Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Gases

 The solubility of gases in liquids decreases with increasing temperature. The molecules in the gaseous state
are so far apart because attractive intermolecular interactions in the gas phase are essentially zero for
most substances.
 When a gas dissolves, it does so because its molecules interact with solvent molecules. Heat is released when
these new attractive forces form. Thus, if external heat is added to the system, it breaks the attractive
forces between the gas and the solvent molecules and decreases the solubility of the gas

C. .Effect of Pressure on Solubility of Gases: Henry’s Law

 External pressure has very little effect on the solubility of liquids and solids because they are incompressible.
In contrast, the solubility of gases increases as the partial pressure of the gas above a solution increases
(Henry’s Law).

Note: Pressure above the liquid is directly proportional to number of gaseous molecules above the liquid.
 Henry’s Law: Relating Pressure to the Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid
 The quantitative relationship between pressure and the solubility of a gas is described quantitatively by Henry’s
law, which is named for its discoverer, the English chemist, William Henry (1775 –1836):
C∝P or C=KP
Where C is the concentration of dissolved gas at equilibrium, P is the partial pressure of the gas, and k is
 the Henry’s law constant, which must be determined experimentally for each combination of gas, solvent, and
temperature. Although the gas concentration May be expressed in any convenient units, we will use

molarity here. The units of the Henry’s law constant are therefore mol/(L.atm)=M/atm.
 The partial pressure of a gas can be expressed as concentration by writing Henry’s Law as
P =C/K Eg 2.3
Since partial pressure and concentration are directly proportional, if the partial pressure of a gas changes
while the temperature remains constant, the new concentration of the gas within the liquid can be easily
calculated using the following equation:

C1 =C2 Eq 2.4

P1 P2
Where C1and P1are the concentration and partial pressure, respectively, of the gas at the initial
condition, and C2 and P2 are the concentration and partial pressure, respectively, of the gas at the
final condition.
 Review Exercises
Part I: True-false type questions.
1.In any chemical reaction, each type of atoms is conserved.
2. In a balanced chemical equation, both sides of the equation have the same number of moles.
3. The oxidizing agent is oxidized by the reducing agent.
4. Most metallic elements are strong reducing agents, whereas most non-metallic elements are strong oxidizing agents.
5. The higher the percentage yields of a chemical reaction, the more efficient the reaction.
Part II: Write the missing words for each of the following.
6. The oxidation number of manganese in KMnO4 is .
7. The maximum yield of product is determined by reactant.
8. Reactions which do not involve electron transfer are known as .
9. The sum of masses of all the atoms present in a molecule is .
10. The sum of the atomic masses of all atoms present in the formula unit of anionic compound is .
11. Is the formula of a substance written with the smallest integer (whole number)subscripts.
12. Which of the following contains the largest number of H2O molecules?
a. 1mole of H2O c. 6.02 x 1023 molecules of HO
2
b. 18g of H2O d. 1kg of H2O
13. The formula mass of Ca3(PO4)2 is
a. 310 d. 120
b. 87 e. none
c. 200
14. One mole of two different substances A and B have equal
a. Number of particle
b. Molar mass
c. Formula mass
d. Molecular mass
e. Percentage composition of the elements
Part IV: Problem-solving questions.
Solve the following problems appropriately.
1. Calculate the molecular masses(in a.m.u) of the following compounds:
a. Sulfur dioxide(SO2),a gas that is responsible for acid rain, and
b. Caffeine (C8H10N4O2),a stimulant present in tea, coffee, and cola beverages.
2. How many moles of CO2 are presentin176g of CO2?
3. How many grams of oxygen can be prepared by the decomposition of 12 Grams of mercury (II)oxide?
4. 25 g of NH3is mixed with 4 moles of O2 in the given reaction: 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)

a. Which is the limiting reactant? b. What mass of NO is formed?

c. What mass of H2O is formed?
5. Consider the following reaction:2N2O5→4NO2(g)+O2(g)
When 40g of N2O5 decomposes, 4.5g of O2is formed. What is the percent yield?
6. Two compounds have the same composition: 85.62% C and14.38%H.
a. Obtain the empirical formula corresponding to this composition.
b. One of the compounds has a molecular mass of 28.03amu;the other, of
56.06amu. Obtain the molecular formulas of both compounds.
7. A borane has the empirical formula BH3 and a molecular mass of 28amu.What is its molecular formula?
8. The percentage composition of acetic acid is found to be 39.9%C,6.7%H,and 53.4% O and its molecular mass was
determined by experiment to be 60 amu. Calculate the empirical and molecular formula of acetic acid.
9. Balance the following equations using any method:
a. H3BO3 → H4B6O11+H2O
b. P2I4 +P4 +H2O→PH4I+H3PO4
c. HClO4+P4O10→H3PO4+Cl2O7
d. H2S+HNO3→S+NO+H2O
e. H2SO4+ HBr →SO2+Br2+H2O
f. KMnO4 +HCl →MnCl2 + Cl2+ KCl+ H2O
g. K+KNO3→N2+K2O
 o Quiz 5%
o Grade 10th D
o Date/ 24/03/2018

True-false type questions. (10th D)

1. The calculation involving the quantities of reactants and products in a chemical equation is called
Stoichiometry.

2. The molecular weight of a substance is the sum of the atomic number of all the atoms in a molecule of the Substance
Choose the correct answer from the given alternative
3. Suppose we have 100.0 grams of iron (Fe). The atomic weight of iron is 55.8 g/mol. How many moles of
iron does this represent?
A. 1 .79 moles of Fe C. 3.79 moles of Fe
B. 2.79 moles of Fe D. 1.99 moles Fe
4. Suppose we have 3.25 moles of glucose, C6H12O6 (molecular wt. = 180.0 g/mol). What is its mass?
A. 5.85 grams of C6H12O C. 58.5 grams of C6H12O6
B.
585 grams of C H O
6 12 6 D. 0.585 grams of C6H12O6
5. Determining the molecular formula from the empirical formula of a compound is CH2O and its molecular
weight is
60.0 g/mol.
A. C3H6O3 C. C2H4O2
B. C3H4O2 D. C4H8O4
6. What is the Empirical Formula & actual formula if the % composition is 40.0% C, 6.7% H, and 53.3% O?
A. C6H12O6 C. C7H12O7 & CH2O
B. CH2O D. CH2O & C6H12O6
7. How many grams of HCl are required to react with 5.00 grams manganese (IV) oxide according to this equation?
A. 8.40 g HCl C. 0.840 g HCl
B. 84.0 g HCl D. 840 g HCl
8. Zinc metal reacts with hydrochloric acid by the following reaction.
Zn( s )+ 2 HCl(aq )→ZnCl2 (aq )+ H2 ( g)
If 0.30 mol Zn is added to hydrochloric acid containing 0.52 mol HCl, how many moles of H 2 are produced?
A. 0.30 moles of HCl C. 0.52 moles of HCl
B. 0.26 moles of HCl D. 0.40 moles of HCl
 Answer
100 . 0 g Fe
moles Fe =
3. 55 . 8 g/mol ¿ 1. 79 moles of Fe
4. Mass C 6 H 12 O6 =(3 .25 moles)×(180 . 0 g/mol)
= 585 grams of C6 H 12 O6
5. The molar weight of the empirical formula (the empirical weight) is only 30.0 g/mol.
This would imply that the molecular formula is actually the empirical formula doubled, or
C2H4O2
6.
1 mole C
 40.0 g C -------------- = 3.33 moles C 3.33 =1.0 mole C
12.011g C 3.33
1 mole H
 6.7 g H -------------- = 6.64 moles H = 6.64 == 2.0 mole H
1.0079g H 3.33
1 mole O
 53.3 g O ------------- = 3.33 moles O 3.33 = 1.0 mole O
15.999g O 3.33
The Empirical Formula is CH2O (MW =30.026)
If MW of the real formula is 180.155, what is the actual formula?
(180.155)/(30.026)= 6 CH2O x 6 = C6H12O6
7.
• First, you write what is given (5.00 g MnO2) and convert this to moles.
• Then convert to moles of what is desired.(mol HCl)
• Finally, you convert this to mass (g HCl)
1 mol MnO2 4 mol HCl
¿
36 . 5 g HCl
5 . 00 g MnO2× ¿
86 . 9 g MnO2 1 mol MnO2 1 mol HCl =8.40 g HCl
8.Take each reactant in turn and ask how much product would be obtained if each were totally consumed.
The reactant that gives the smaller amount is the limiting reagent.
1 mol H2 1 mol H 2
0 . 30 mol Zn × = 0 . 30 mol H2 0 . 52 mol HCl × = 0 .26 mol H 2
1 mol Zn 2 mol HCl
 Fire-sweat General Secondary School First Semester Mid Exam Chemistry for Grade 10 In2018 E.C
Name____________________________________ ___________ Grade ____
Section ____
Roll No ____
Time allowed_____
I. Write True if the statement is correct & false if not correct (1-point each)
_____ 1. All chemical reactions are chemical change.
_____2. Non-Redox reaction involves the transfer of electrons.
_____3. The oxidation number of S in S2O82.-
_____4. AgNO3 + NaC l→ AgCl + NaNO3 is a Redox reaction.
II Choose the correct answer from the given alternative (1-point each)
____ 5. The study of quantitative relationship between reactant & product in chemical reaction is known
A. Analysis B. Electrolysis C. Hydrolysis D. Stoichiometry
_____6. Which of the following is an example of chemical change?
A. Cooling of water B. Formation of on the sky C. Burning of wood D. Magnetization of iron
_____7. What is the Coefficient of NO2 after balancing of the equation?
Cu + HNO3 (conce.) → Cu (NO3)2 +NO2 +H2O
A. 1 B. 3 C. 2 D. 4
_____8. Which of the following chemical reactions is a decomposition reaction?
A. AgNO3 + NaC l→ AgCl + NaNO3 B. 2H2 +O2 → 2H2O C. 2HgO → 2Hg +O2 D. 2NaCl +I2 → 2N
_____9. When 12g hydrogen reacts with nitrogen it produces 34 g of ammonia .what is the percentage
ammonia? N2 +3H2 → 2NH3 (Atomic mass N= 14 gram, H =1.008 gram)
A. 40% B. 20% C. 50% D. 75%
____10. Which species in the reaction equation below is an oxidizing agent?
2H2S +SO2 → 3S +2H2O
A. H2O B. SO2 C. H2S D. S
____11.What is the percentage composition of P in Ca3 (PO4)2 (atomic mass of Ca =40 g, P =31 g, O =16 g
A. 20% B. 10% C. 30% D. 60%
____12. What is the mass of 0.25 moles of Ca3 (PO4)2 (A.mass of Ca =40 g/mol, P =31 g/mole, O =16 g/m
A. 310 gram B. 55 gram C. 77.5 gram D. 165 gram
III Work out, Show the necessary steps (1-point each)
13. If 46 gram of CH4 react with 32gram of oxygen as follows
CH4 +2O2 → CO2 +2H2O (atomic mass of C =12 g , H =1.008 g ,O =16 g)
A. Which substance is the limiting reactant?
B. How many gram of it remain unreacted?
14. What volume of oxygen reacts with carbon monoxide to produce 0.5 mol of CO2 at STP?
2 CO + O2 → 2CO2
15. How many mole of water are required to produces 4.5 mole of nitric acid according to the follow
Reaction: 3NO2 + H2O → 2HNO3 + NO
16. Analysis of a compound reveals this composition 80% C % 20% H. If it is molecular mass is 30gra
A. What is the empirical formula?
B. What is the molecular formula?