OCR SOCIOLOGY A LEVEL – PAPER 2 REVISION PACK
SECTION B – SOCIAL INEQUALITIES
A) SOCIAL CLASS
Functionalism:
• Davis & Moore (1945) – Stratification is necessary; inequality ensures important jobs are filled.
• Parsons (1951) – Society functions like a body; each role maintains stability.
• Saunders (1995) – Social mobility exists, so inequality is fair and meritocratic.
Marxism:
• Marx & Engels (1848) – Capitalism exploits workers; class struggle drives change.
• Bourdieu (1986) – Cultural capital is passed down to protect privilege.
• Althusser (1971) – Ideological state apparatuses maintain inequality.
Neo-Marxism:
• Gramsci (1971) – Hegemony controls working-class through culture.
• Wilmott & Young (1957) – Working-class show shared norms, not revolution.
• Braverman (1974) – Deskilling of jobs controls workers.
Weberian:
• Weber (1922) – Class + status + party = stratification.
• Goldthorpe (1972) – Affluent Worker study; class identity remained.
• Parkin (1979) – Social closure blocks outsiders from privilege.
Postmodernism:
• Pakulski & Waters (1996) – Class is dead; lifestyle shapes identity.
• Beck (1992) – Risk society changes meaning of class.
• Bauman (2000) – Liquid modernity; identities shift constantly.
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B) GENDER
Functionalism:
• Parsons (1955) – Instrumental vs expressive roles maintain family stability.
• Murdock (1949) – Gender roles are universal across 200 societies.
• Davis & Moore (1945) – Inequality sorts people into necessary roles.
Feminism (General):
• Walby (1990) – Six structures of patriarchy (state, work, family, etc).
• Oakley (1974) – Housework is unpaid female labour.
• Hakim (2010) – Women may choose part-time/domestic roles.
Marxist Feminism:
• Engels (1884) – Marriage is a capitalist system of control.
• Benston (1972) – Unpaid labour produces workers for free.
• Dalla Costa & James (1972) – Wages for housework argument.
Radical Feminism:
• Firestone (1970) – Patriarchy rooted in biological control.
• Delphy & Leonard (1992) – Family exploits women economically.
• Millet (1970) – Culture and language enforce patriarchy.
Postfeminism:
• Hakim (2011) – Women now have greater agency.
• McRobbie (2009) – Media pressures but also independence.
• Giddens (1991) – Reflexive identity; gender can be crafted.
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C) ETHNICITY
Functionalism / New Right:
• Murray (1984) – Underclass; welfare dependency.
• Patterson (1965) – Host-immigrant model; assimilation.
• Sewell (1997) – Absent fathers harm Black boys’ achievement.
Marxism / Neo-Marxism:
• Hall (1978) – Moral panic of ‘black muggers’ diverted attention from capitalism.
• Castles & Kosack (1973) – Ethnic minorities used as scapegoats.
• Gilroy (1987) – Racism embedded culturally, not just institutionally.
Postcolonial:
• Said (1978) – Orientalism; stereotypes of the ‘other’.
• Fanon (1967) – Psychological effects of colonialism.
• Bhambra (2014) – British identity ignores colonial history.
Feminism & Ethnicity:
• Crenshaw (1989) – Intersectionality.
• Mirza (1992) – Black women resist racism.
• Hooks (1981) – Racism exists inside feminist movements.
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D) AGE
Functionalism:
• Parsons (1965) – Retirement refreshes labour force.
• Cummings & Henry (1961) – Disengagement theory.
• Murdock (1949) – Age roles maintain order.
Marxism:
• Phillipson (1982) – Elderly = reserve army of labour.
• Vincent (2003) – Surplus population.
• Featherstone & Hepworth (1991) – Stereotypes protect capitalism.
Weberian:
• Turner (1989) – Elderly lose status when unemployed.
• Barron & Norris (1976) – Dual labour market disadvantages youth.
• Parkin (1979) – Social closure.
Postmodernism:
• Blaikie (1999) – Grey power; consumer strength.
• Katz (2005) – Age identity is fluid.
• Featherstone & Hepworth (2005) – Mask of ageing.
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SECTION A – RESEARCH METHODS
QUALITATIVE METHODS
Advantages:
1. Rich, detailed data allows deep insight into feelings and motivations.
2. High validity because participants speak in their own words.
3. Suitable for sensitive topics due to trust and openness.
4. Can reveal unexpected patterns and theories.
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to analyse statistically and compare data.
2. Time-consuming and expensive for researchers.
3. Researcher presence may influence responses.
4. Lacks reliability and generalisability across society.
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
Advantages:
1. Numerical data can be compared and used to identify trends.
2. Standardised procedures increase reliability.
3. Cheap and quick to collect at large scale.
4. Researcher detachment reduces personal bias.
Disadvantages:
1. Lacks depth and may ignore personal experiences.
2. Closed questions force participants into rigid categories.
3. Official stats may be biased or manipulated.
4. Participants may lie or give socially desirable answers.
