PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M.

Cabansay, BSCpE

CHEM181: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS,

LAB
NOTES COMPILED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES

Senior High School Major Course Connections: General Chemistry 1, General Chemistry 2

Senior High School Semi-Major Course Connections: General Physics 1, General Physics 2, General Biology 1, General
Biology 2, Earth Science

Course Connections: CHEM131: Chemistry for Engineers, Lecture

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Lesson 1: Common Laboratory Apparatuses and Equipment .................................................................................................... 3
What We Need in the Laboratory ................................................................................................................................................. 3
A. Safety Gear ........................................................................................................................................................................... 3
B. Commonly Used Apparatuses ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Lesson 2: Laboratory Safety ................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Safety in the Laboratory................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Your Role in the Laboratory ............................................................................................................................................................ 7
Guide to Chemical Hazards ............................................................................................................................................................ 9
Hazard Symbols ............................................................................................................................................................................. 9
NFPA 704 ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Broad Classes of Subhazards ................................................................................................................................................... 14
Recognizing Chemical Hazards: Sources of Information ...................................................................................................... 15
Lesson 3: Common Laboratory Operations ................................................................................................................................... 16
Operating a Bunsen Burner .......................................................................................................................................................... 16
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Parts of a Bunsen Burner .......................................................................................................................................................... 16

Lighting and Putting Out the Bunsen Burner ..................................................................................................................... 16
Differences between the types of Flames: ............................................................................................................................ 17
More Common Operations ........................................................................................................................................................... 17
Measuring Volumes of Liquids ................................................................................................................................................ 17
Transferring Liquids.................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Heating a Test Tube .................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Investigating Odors ..................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Physical Separation of Components of Mixtures .................................................................................................................... 18
Apparatus Needed ....................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Materials Needed......................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Procedure ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Lesson 4: Calorimetry .......................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Calorimetry ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 21
Apparatus Needed ....................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Materials Needed......................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Experiment Proper....................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Computation of Data ................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Lesson 5: Heat of Combustion .......................................................................................................................................................... 23
Heat of Combustion ........................................................................................................................................................................ 23
Apparatus Needed ....................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Materials Needed......................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Experiment Proper....................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Computation of Data ................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Quantitative Data and Formulas ............................................................................................................................................ 24
References ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 49
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 1: COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUSES AND EQUIPMENT

WHAT WE NEED IN THE LABORATORY

To perform experiments in chemistry, we need various equipment.

A. SAFETY GEAR
These are the most important gear we need before we perform any experiment.

1. Goggles – this protects the eyes from splashing substances or irritating fumes. Get a pair that can be worn over
glasses if you do wear glasses, as your glasses alone may not suffice as protection, especially with regards to
corrosive, toxic, or irritating fumes, or as protection from explosions when dealing with explosive substances.
2. Latex Gloves – these protect your hands from most substances. Always have these ready, especially if you will
be dealing with corrosive, irritant, and toxic substances.
3. Lab Gown/Lab Coat – this protects most of your upper body and your clothes from different substances,
especially corrosive or staining ones.
4. Face Mask – this protects your nose and mouth from substances with either toxic or irritating fumes.
5. Closed-Toe Shoes – these protect your feet from any corrosive or toxic substances or dropped objects (especially
glassware or heavy objects) in the laboratory. Ordinary leather or faux leather school shoes (but not rubber
shoes) should suffice.

B. COMMONLY USED APPARATUSES

Common apparatuses used in the laboratory include:

1. Burette – a long, glass graduated (or marked with measurements) tube with a tap around it used for dispensing
an accurate, usually small, amount of liquid (such as in titration) and measuring its discharge. It is used in
analytical chemistry for the dispensing of a variable amount of a chemical solution and measuring that amount
at the same time.
a. Acid Burette – this is a glass vial with graduation marks, is used for acid titrants and is used in
titrations where the analyte is a base.
b. Base Burette – this has a rubber tubing near its tip, is used for base titrants, and is used in titrations
where the analyte is an acid.
2. Adapter – used to connect pieces of glassware with ground glass joints to each other, to a vacuum source, or to a
water aspirator. It is also used to lead liquids from a condenser to a receiving flask during distillation.
3. Alcohol Lamp – is used to produce an open flame. Is usually made of glass, but can also be made of brass,
aluminum, or stainless steel. Its flame is orange and is even cooler than the yellow flame on a Bunsen Burner, but
is non-luminous like the blue flame.
4. Beaker – It is a cylindrical borosilicate glass container used as a receptacle for solid and liquid substances,
especially when in large amounts.
5. Beaker Tongs – It is used to hold hot beakers. It has plastic at its ends to prevent slippage or scratching when it
is holding an apparatus, but this CANNOT be used as a pair of crucible tongs as this could cause the plastic to
melt.
6. Bunsen Burner – It is used as a heating device in laboratory experiments. This is mainly used for heating non-
flammable and non-volatile substances. A guide to using one is shown in Lesson 3.
7. Clay Flame Shield – it is a heat resistant apparatus used to insulate the Bunsen burner flame from the
surroundings. This looks like an upside-down flowerpot (large enough to fit a Bunsen burner) with an open base
and an open top and holes to accommodate the Bunsen burner’s rubber hose/tubing and allow adjustment of the
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

air and gas. This takes the place of the laboratory tripod used in other laboratories. The clay flame shield used by
CIT-U is shown below:
8. Clay Triangle – It is used in the process of heating substances. It is used in conjunction with the clay shield to

Figure 1: Clay Flame Shield, as seen in CIT-U chemistry

laboratories

create a stable framework in which to place a substance – usually a solid chemical – while it is heated to a high
temperature. It can also be used to support the crucible on a ring stand when heating, as a crucible may not be
large enough to be supported by the ring stand alone and may be too heavy for the wire gauze to support.
9. Condenser – it is a double-walled glass device used to condense hot vapors into liquids during distillation.
10. Crucible – a ceramic container used when heating substances to very high temperatures.
11. Crucible Tongs – It is used to handle hot materials safely at very high temperatures, such as when holding hot
crucibles. It CAN be used as a pair of beaker tongs but has a risk of slippage or scratching due to the lack of
plastic near its tip.
12. Digital Balance – is an electronic instrument used to weigh objects and small amounts of substances up to the
milligram level (depending on the model’s specifications).
13. Triple Beam Balance – this contains one pan with which the object is placed, and three rider beams which can
be adjusted so the readings determine the mass/weight of the object. It is a precise measurement, with an error
of 0.05 g.
14. Platform Balance – this has two pans: one to place the object in and another to place a set of weights on for
comparison. The readings from the set of weights and one rider beam in front determine the mass/weight of the
object.
15. Distilling Flask – it is used to separate mixtures of two liquids with different boiling points.
16. Dropper – used to transfer small quantities of liquids.
17. Erlenmeyer Flask/Conical Flask – used for the storing and mixing of chemicals in a laboratory setting. Has a
narrow neck that expands towards its base.
18. Evaporating Dish – a wide, ceramic dish used to heat liquids for evaporation. Used to evaporate excess solvent
in a solution – most commonly water – to produce a concentrated solution or a solid precipitate of the dissolved
substance.
19. Florence Flask – a type of flask designed for uniform heating, boiling, distillation, and ease of swirling. This does
not have a ground glass joint, but have a slight lip.
20. Forceps – used to pick up or hold small objects.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

21. Funnel – used to channel liquids or fine-grained substances (such as powders) into containers with a small
opening (such as an Erlenmeyer flask or test tube), or for filtration when used with filter paper.
22. Fume Hood – this is used when dealing with substances or reactions that can generate toxic, corrosive, or
irritating vapors or dust.
23. Glass Rod/Stirring Rod – used for stirring or mixing chemicals and liquids. It can also be used for transferring
liquids from one container (such as a beaker, Erlenmeyer flask, or test tube) to a container with a smaller opening
(such as a test tube, an Erlenmeyer flask, or a smaller beaker), especially in separating a mixture by decantation.
24. Glass Tubing – a hollow tube made of glass used to connect other pieces of lab equipment (such as a condenser
to an adapter or distilling flask).
25. Graduated Cylinder – It is used for measuring volumes/amounts of liquids accurately, and is also commonly
used in water displacement method for the volume of small, irregular solids.
26. Iron Stand – it is used to support the iron ring when heating substances or mixtures in a flask or beaker. This is
the base of the stand with a rod sticking up from it.
27. Iron Ring – it is used to hold or support beakers during experiments while connected to the iron stand.
28. Iron Clamp – it is a piece of laboratory equipment that is used to hold things in place. This can be used to hold a
container (such as a flask with a neck or a funnel), or in the case of a utility clamp, to secure glassware to a ring
stand.
29. Mortar and Pestle – used to grind materials into a powder.
30. Pipette – a calibrated and graduated laboratory apparatus used to transfer a measured amount of liquid from
one container to another.
a. Volumetric Pipette – consists of a glass tube used to measure a single exact (usually small) volume of
liquid. It has only a single marking on it, unlike the usual pipette.
31. Pipette Bulb/Pipettor/Aspirator – helps draw up liquid when using a pipette.
32. Reagent Bottle – stores reagents or chemicals, but is not directly used in the experimentation. These are
typically either made of amber/brown glass or clear glass bottles.
33. Scoopula – a portmanteau of “scoop” and “spatula”, used to scoop, scrape or transfer small solids such as
powders or paste-like substances.
34. Spatula – it is used to scrape or transfer small amounts of powders or paste-like substances. Unlike a scoopula,
this has a flat end used for this purpose.
35. Test Tube – glass tube with a round base used to hold and mix liquids (usually small amounts)
36. Test Tube Brush – used to clean test tubes and narrow-mouthed laboratory glassware such as flasks and small
beakers.
37. Test Tube Clamp – It is attached to an iron stand and used to hold test tubes in place during heating operations
and/or reactions.
38. Test Tube Holder – It is used for holding a test tube in place when the tube is hot or should not be touched.
39. Test Tube Rack – This holds upright multiple test tubes at the same time. It is commonly used when various
different solutions are needed to work with simultaneously, for safety reasons, for safe storage of test tubes when
not in use, and to ease the transport of multiple test tubes.
40. Thermometer – used to measure temperatures or temperature changes with a high degree of precision.
41. Volumetric Flask – round flask with a long neck and flat bottom used to prepare solutions to an accurate
(usually moderate to large) volume. Comes with caps to prevent contamination and leakage. This commonly has
a ground glass joint.
42. Water Bath – used to incubate samples in water at a constant temperature over a long period of time. Also used
to enable certain chemical reactions to occur at a controlled temperature or to heat volatile and flammable
substances. An example of a water bath as seen in CIT-U’s chemistry laboratories is show below:
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Figure 2: Water Bath, as seen in CIT-U's chemistry laboratories

43. Wash Bottle – a bottle with a nozzle that can easily be squeezed. Used to rinse pieces of glassware and to add
small quantities of water.
44. Watch Glass – used to evaporate a liquid, to hold solids while being weighed, for heating a small amount of
substance, and as a cover for a beaker.
45. Wire Gauze – supports a container, used while heating. May have a ceramic or fiberglass center. This is placed
on either the iron ring or the clay flame shield between the Bunsen burner (or other heating source) and beakers,
flasks, or a water bath in order to support the glassware during heating.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 2: LABORATORY SAFETY

SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

Safety is a key concern in any science laboratory, particularly the chemistry lab. Students need to understand the hazards
posed by chemicals and of various chemical procedures for them to be able to work safely in the lab. This simple paradigm
is the guide to working as safely as possible in the laboratory:

• Recognize hazards
• Assess the risk of hazards
• Minimize the risk of hazards
• Prepare for emergencies

YOUR ROLE IN THE LABORATORY

Preventing any untoward incident in the laboratory is a collective responsibility of everyone working in the laboratory: the
instructor, the lab assistants, and especially the students. It is the responsibility of you, your classmates, the lab assistants,
and the instructor to keep the lab safe. However, the most responsible person is you – the experimenter – who can most
directly prevent any incidents and maintain safety in the lab.

Accidents often result from:

• Indifferent attitudes towards safety;

• Not recognizing hazards or hazardous situations;
• Not assessing risks involved in the work being done;
• Failure to be alert to your surroundings;
• Not following instructions or measures to minimize the risks; and
• Not recognizing the limitations of your knowledge and experience.

Your major responsibility is to Minimize the Risk of Hazards. When working in the laboratory, remember to:

1. Conduct proper behavior.

a. Do not perform unauthorized experiments (especially if without an instructor or lab assistant
supervising)
b. Never eat, drink, smoke, or apply cosmetics in the laboratory.
c. Never play tricks or engage in horseplay in the laboratory.
2. Wear proper laboratory attire
a. Wear your personal protective equipment (PPE): lab gown, goggles (prescription glasses do not provide
enough protection), mask, closed shoes, gloves
b. Long hair should be tied and kept
c. Remove jewelry and accessories
3. Safe handling of chemicals
a. Read the procedures before coming to the laboratory and listen to your instructor’s directions.
b. Never sniff a chemical directly. Smell vapors by wafting/gently fanning the vapors towards your nose.
c. Never return reagents to their original containers once they have been removed.
4. Proper housekeeping
a. Put your bags in the designated area (such as under the counters if the space permits). Make sure to free
the aisles and counters of any unnecessary stuff.
b. Keep chemicals away from the edges of the counters to prevent spilling.
c. Clean your workstation before leaving the laboratory.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

5. Proper hygiene
a. Never put your hands or pen to your face or mouth while working in the laboratory.
b. For people who wear contact lenses or glasses, do not handle them while in the laboratory, except to
remove them when an emergency requires the use of the eyewash fountain or safety shower.
c. Always wash your hands and arms with soap and water before leaving the laboratory, even if you wore
gloves.
6. Emergency Preparedness: Become thoroughly acquainted with the location and use of safety equipment and
facilities such as:
a. Exits/Emergency exits
b. Evacuation routes – ways to get out of a building if there is an emergency such as a fire or an
earthquake. In an emergency, the main evacuation route is through the front door. The details about this
main route is put near elevators, stairways, and in main hallways (and places where either a lot of people
would be in, such as a classroom, or where there may be a few people but would be there for at least an
hour, such as an office) so people know how to get out in an emergency.
c. Safety Shower – this is designed to wash a person’s head and body which has come into contact with
hazardous chemicals. This can also be used to extinguish fires (though a fire extinguisher is better for
this purpose) or to flush contaminants off clothing.
d. Eyewash Fountain – this is used to flush the eyes with water when dust, irritants, or chemicals enter the
eye.
e. Fire Extinguisher – as the name says, is used for extinguishing fires. The usual ones we see, which are
dry chemical fire extinguishers, can put out most types of small fires, but usually cannot put out
metal/Class D fires. Sometimes, a bucket of sand is used. The five classes of fires recognized by the
Occupational Safety and Health Center (OSHC) of the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE),
which uses the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 10 Standard, are listed below.
i. Class A fires – ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, rubber, plastic, cloth, etc. Most fire
extinguishers, including sand and water can put out this type of fire. Fire extinguishers
A designed for this kind of fire show a green triangle with the letter A and/or a trashcan and
wood on fire.
ii. Class B fires – surface fires (flammable/combustible liquids and gases) such as gasoline,
B alcohol, oil-based paints, aerosols, thinner, grease, LPG release of gas. Water and wet chemicals
should not be used to put out this kind of fire. Oils are under a different class. Fire extinguishers
designed for this kind of fire show a red square with the letter B and/or a gas tank pouring
liquid onto a fire.
iii. Class C fires – electrical fires or fire involving live electrical equipment such as motors, electric
C fans, air-conditioning unit, computers, etc. Water should not be used to put out this type of fire.
Fire extinguishers designed for this kind of fire show a blue circle with the letter C and/or an
electrical plug and socket on fire.
iv. Class D fires – combustible metals such as aluminum, magnesium, sodium, titanium, etc. Dry
D powder is the fire extinguisher specially made for this type of fire. Fire extinguishers designed
for this class of fire show a yellow star with the letter D and/or a gear on fire.
v. Class K fires – kitchen fires/fires involving animal or vegetable oils. Special wet chemical fire
K extinguishers for this type of fire are used. Fire extinguishers designed for this class of fire have
a black hexagon with the letter K and/or a frying pan with a plume of fire.
f. First-aid kits

Alternate Symbols to the classes of fires

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Pictogram

Class of Fire Class A Class B Class C Class D Class K

Flammable Energized
Ordinary solid Combustible
Intended Use liquids and electrical Oils and fats
combustibles metals
gases equipment
Mnemonic Ash Barrel Current Dynamite Kitchen

GUIDE TO CHEMICAL HAZARDS

A hazard is a potential source of danger or harm. If chemical hazards are not recognized, this may result to personal
injury or property damage. Risk is the combination of the possibility of the occurrence of an unwanted incident, the
severity of its consequences and the frequency of exposure to the hazard. Though chemicals are considered hazards, they
will not present risk to us if we learn to recognize them and minimize their risk.

Chemical hazards are divided into three broad categories: physical, health, and environmental hazards. The Globally
Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) includes two sets of pictograms: one for use in the
laboratory or workplace and in labelling of containers, and the other for use in transporting dangerous goods.

HAZARD SYMBOLS
These symbols appear on labels of containers of chemicals.

GHS Symbol (and ISO Type of Hazard

7010 symbol for
Hazard Description
Radioactive and
Biohazard)
Chemicals that can
explode as a result of
Explosive Physical
exposure to friction, heat,
or force.
Can cause fire and
sparks when exposed to
Flammable Physical heat or emit flammable
gases when exposed to
water.
May cause a fire by
increasing the
Oxidizing Physical and Health
concentration of oxygen
in the air

Compressed, liquefied, or
Compressed Gas Physical dissolved gases stored in
high-pressure containers.

Causes corrosion or
destruction of materials,
Corrosive Physical and Health burns, and eye damage.
Skin and eye contact
should be avoided.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Ingestion, inhalation, or
Toxic Health skin contact may have
serious or adverse effects.

Can be any of:

Irritant – irritates the
skin, eyes, or respiratory
tract. This is not used if
the health hazard symbol
below is used to indicate
the chemical is a
respiratory tract irritant.

Skin sensitizer – can

induce allergic responses
following skin contact
Harmful Health
Acute toxicity (not used
if the Toxic symbol is
used) – can be fatal or
cause organ damage
from a single short-term
exposure

Has narcotic effects -

include drowsiness, lack
of coordination and
dizziness.
Can be any of:
Carcinogen – may
cause cancer.

Respiratory sensitizer
– may cause respiratory
irritation

Reproductive toxicity
– may damage fertility or
the unborn child
Health Hazard Health
Target organ toxicity –
may cause damage to
bodily organs

Mutagenicity – may
cause genetic defects

Aspiration toxicity –
may be fatal if swallowed
or enters the airways.
Can cause harm to
marine or terrestrial life
Environmental Hazard Environmental (other than humans)
such as by water or soil
contamination.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Hazardous effects due to

radiation possible. These
are only dealt with in
Physical, Health and
Radioactive Material specific laboratory
Environmental
settings. Mentioned only
because these are very
significant hazards.
Carries significant health
risks. Includes infectious
waste, bacteria, and
viruses. These are only
Health and
Biohazard dealt with in specific
Environmental
laboratory settings.
Mentioned only because
these are very significant
hazards.

NFPA 704
The four-colored diamond you see on the right (or similarly-colored diamonds) is the NFPA 704
Fire Diamond. It appears on the labelling of many chemicals as these can help determine risks
posed by hazardous materials.

The blue, red, and yellow diamonds are numbered from 0 to 4 depending on the toxicity,
flammability, and reactivity, respectively.

Diamond Health (Blue) Flammability (Red) Reactivity (Yellow)

No. on Scale Left-Hand Diamond Top Diamond Right-Hand Diamond
Exposure under fire Will not burn Normally stable, even under
conditions would offer no fire exposure conditions, and
hazard beyond that of Examples: water (𝐻2 𝑂), is not reactive with water.
ordinary combustible carbon tetrachloride
materials. (CCl4 ), chlorine gas Examples: water (H2 O),
(Cl2(𝑔) ), potassium liquid nitrogen (𝑁2(𝑙) ), chlorine
Examples: water (H2 O), perchlorate (KClO4 ), gas (Cl2(𝑔) ), ammonia (NH3 ),
sodium chloride (𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙), sodium chloride (NaCl), acetone ((CH3 )2 CO), propane
hydrogen gas (H2(𝑔) ),
liquid nitrogen (N2(𝑙) ), (C3 H8 ), hydrogen gas (H2(𝑔) ),
calcium (Ca), nitrogen
triiodide (NI3 ) sodium bromate (NaBrO3 ), sodium chloride (NaCl),
potassium chloride (KCl), turpentine, sodium bromate
0
ammonium phosphate (NaBrO3 ), potassium chloride
(No hazard)
((NH4 )3 PO4 ), carbon (KCl), ammonium phosphate
dioxide (CO2 ), chloroform ((NH4 )3 PO4 ), carbon dioxide
(CHCl3 ), iodine (I2 ), (CO2 ), chloroform (CHCl3 ),
sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ), iodine (I2 ), DEET [active
calcium hypochlorite ingredient in insect
(Ca(ClO)2 ), repellents], liquid hydrogen
hexafluorosilicic acid (H2(𝑙) ), carbon monoxide (CO),
(F6 H2 Si), zinc chloride hexafluorosilicic acid
(ZnCl2 ), phosgene (COCl2 ), (F6 H2 Si), zinc chloride
hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), (ZnCl2 ), hydrofluoric acid
hydrofluoric acid (HF), (HF), helium (He)
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

hydrochloric acid (HCl),

sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
helium (He), ammonium
nitrate (NH4 NO3 ), chlorine
dioxide (ClO2 ), nitrogen
triiodide (NI3 ), manganese
heptoxide (Mn2 O7 )
Exposure would cause Must be preheated before Normally stable, but can
irritation but only minor ignition can occur. Flash become unstable at elevated
residual injury. point over 93.3 °C (200 °F) temperatures and pressures.

Examples: turpentine, Examples: mineral oil, Examples: calcium (Ca),

acetone ((CH3 )2 CO), canola oil, sulfur (S), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4 ),
potassium perchlorate ammonia (NH3 ), DEET potassium perchlorate
1
(KClO4 ), sodium bromate
(Low hazard) [active ingredient in insect (KClO4 ), diethyl ether
(NaBrO3 ), potassium
repellents], VX gas ((C2 H5 )2 O), calcium
chloride (KCl), helium
(He), propene (C3 H6 ), (C11 H26 NO2 PS) hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2 ), VX
ammonium nitrate gas (C11 H26 NO2 PS), phosgene
(NH4 NO3 ) (COCl2 ), hydrochloric acid
(HCl), sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), propene (C3 H6 )
Intense or continued but Must be moderately Undergoes violent chemical
not chronic exposure could heated or exposed to change at elevated
cause temporary relatively high ambient temperatures and pressures,
incapacitation or possible temperature before reacts violently with water, or
residual injury. ignition can occur. Flash may form explosive mixtures
point between 38 and with water:
Examples: chloroform 93 °C (100 and 200 °F).
2 (𝐶𝐻𝐶𝑙3 ), sulfur (S), Examples: sulfur (S), white
(Moderate hazard) propane (C3 H8 ), diethyl Examples: diesel fuel, phosphorus (𝑃4 ), sulfuric acid
ether ((C2 H5 )2 O), sodium (Na), nitroglycerin (H2 SO4 ), hydrogen cyanide
ammonium phosphate
(C3 H5 N3 O9 ) (HCN), potassium (K), sodium
((NH4 )3 PO4 ), carbon
dioxide (CO2 ), DEET (Na)
[active ingredient in insect
repellents],
Trinitrotoluene/TNT
(C6 H2 (NO2 )3 CH3 )
Short exposure could Liquids and solids that can Capable of detonation or
cause serious temporary or be ignited under almost all explosive decomposition but
residual injury. ambient temperature requires a strong initiating
conditions. Flash point source, must be heated under
Examples: chlorine gas between 23 and 38 °C (73 confinement before initiation,
3 (𝐶𝑙2(𝑔) ), ammonia (NH3 ), and 100 °F) reacts explosively with water,
(High hazard) carbon tetrachloride or will detonate if severely
(CCl4 ), liquid nitrogen Examples: gasoline, shocked.
(N2(𝑙) ), iodine (I2 ), liquid turpentine, acetone
hydrogen (H2(𝑙) ), sulfuric Examples: hydrogen peroxide
((CH3 )2 CO), methyl
acid (H2 SO4 ), calcium
isocyanate (CH3 NCO), (𝐻2 𝑂2 ), diborane (B2 H6 ),
hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2 ),
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

carbon monoxide (CO), calcium (Ca), potassium methyl isocyanate (CH3 NCO),
hexafluorosilicic acid (K) ammonium nitrate (NH4 NO3 ),
(F6 H2 Si), zinc chloride cesium (Cs)
(ZnCl2 ), hydrogen peroxide
(H2 O2 ), hydrochloric acid
(HCl), sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), potassium (K),
sodium (Na), cesium (Cs),
nitroglycerin (C3 H5 N3 O9 ),
chlorine dioxide (ClO2 )
Very short exposure could Will rapidly or completely Readily capable of detonation
cause death or major vaporize at normal or explosive decomposition at
residual injury. atmospheric pressure and normal temperatures and
temperature, or is readily pressures.
Examples: VX gas dispersed in air and will
(𝐶11 𝐻26 𝑁𝑂2 𝑃𝑆), diborane burn readily. Flash point Examples: nitroglycerin
(B2 H6 ), white phosphorus below 23 °C (73 °F). (𝐶3 𝐻5 𝑁3 𝑂9 ), chlorine dioxide
(P4 ), hydrogen cyanide (ClO2 ), nitrogen triiodide
(HCN), phosgene (COCl2 ), Examples: acetylene
methyl isocyanate (NI3 ), manganese heptoxide
4 (C2 H2 ), propane (𝐶3 𝐻8 ), (Mn2 O7 ), Trinitrotoluene/TNT
(CH3 NCO), hydrofluoric
(Severe hazard) acid (HF), manganese hydrogen gas (H2(𝑔) ), (C6 H2 (NO2 )3 CH3 )
heptoxide (Mn2 O7 ) liquid hydrogen (H2(𝑙) ),
diborane (B2 H6 ), white
phosphorus (P4 ), diethyl
ether ((C2 H5 )2 O), carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrogen
cyanide (HCN), propene
(C3 H6 ), cesium (Cs),
Trinitrotoluene/TNT
(C6 H2 (NO2 )3 CH3 )

The white diamond contains letters or symbols to indicate other hazards, and may be left blank if there is none.

Special Notice (White)

Symbol
Bottom Diamond
No special hazards
None or blank
Examples: water (H2 O),
Oxidizer

Examples: potassium perchlorate (𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂4 ), chlorine

gas (Cl2(𝑔) ), sodium bromate (NaBrO3 ), carbon
OX
dioxide (CO2 ), sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ), calcium
hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2 ), ammonium nitrate
(NH4 NO3 ), chlorine dioxide (ClO2 ), manganese
heptoxide (Mn2 O7 )
Reacts unusually with water
W
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Examples: sodium (Na), diborane (B2 H6 ), sulfuric

acid (H2 SO4 ), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), cesium
(Cs), all alkali metals
Simple asphyxiant
SA
Examples: carbon dioxide (CO2 ), nitrogen (N2(𝑔) ),
helium (He)
Corrosive
COR
Examples: ammonia (NH3 ), potassium hydroxide
(KOH)
Acidic
ACID
Examples: hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Alkaline/Basic
ALK
Examples: sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Biological hazard
BIO or Example: Flu virus, rabies virus, SARS-CoV-2 (causes
COVID-19), smallpox virus
Radioactive

RA, RAD, or Examples: plutonium (Pu), cobalt-60 (60Co), carbon-14

( 14C)
Cryogenic
CRY or CRYO
Examples: liquid nitrogen, liquid hydrogen

BROAD CLASSES OF SUBHAZARDS

1. Toxicity – a toxic substance is a chemical that can cause injury to a living organism. One way of checking the
toxicity is for a skull and crossbones pictogram or the blue Health diamond (left-hand diamond) on an
NFPA 704 diamond. There are many factors that determine how a living organism will react to a chemical when
it enters your body. Among those factors are:
a. Route of Entry – there are four ways a chemical can enter the body
i. Inhalation – the chemical enters the respiratory tract by breathing
ii. Ingestion – the chemical enters the digestive tract through the mouth
iii. Absorption – the chemical comes in contact with the skin, thus, dermal absorption of the
chemical may occur
iv. Injection – the chemical enters the body through a cut made in the skin by a sharp
contaminated object.
b. Dose – how much substance was received at one time.
c. Duration – how long was the exposure
i. Acute exposure – rapid assimilation of the toxic substance in at least one dose within 24
hours.
ii. Chronic exposure – repeated exposures, typically of low doses, with a duration measured in
months or years.
d. Physical state of the toxic substance (liquid, solid, or gas)
2. Flammability – the likelihood of a certain chemical to catch on fire. One good way of checking the flammability
is for a flame pictogram or the red Flammability diamond (top diamond) on an NFPA 704 diamond.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

3. Reactivity – the ability of chemicals to react with other chemicals and transform into new substances. One good
way to check for reactivity is the yellow Instability-Reactivity diamond (right-hand diamond) and the OX
and W labels in the white Special diamond (bottom diamond) on an NFPA 704 diamond, as the GHS does
not have a single pictogram for highly reactive substances.
4. Corrosivity – corrosion is the gradual destruction resulting from the action of a chemical on a metal or living
tissue. All strong acids, strong bases, some weak acids and bases, and some slightly soluble bases are corrosive.
Even acute exposure to corrosive chemicals can irreversibly destroy living tissue. Your eyes are particularly
vulnerable. The best way to check for corrosivity is the corrosive GHS pictogram. The NFPA 704 does not
define a corrosive label for their fire diamond, but sometimes it is indicated by the COR label in the white
Special diamond (bottom diamond) on an NFPA 704 diamond.

REMEMBER: When diluting concentrated solutions of acids or bases, you must always slowly add the acid or base to the
water while stirring the mixture, never the other way around (i.e. adding water to the acid or base).

RECOGNIZING CHEMICAL HAZARDS: SOURCES OF INFOR MATION

Information about chemical hazards can be found in:

1. Posters
2. Manufacturer’s container labels (GHS pictograms and the NFPA diamond are the best and/or most reliable
examples)
3. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS, the most reliable source of information, as this also includes GHS
pictograms and the NFPA diamond).
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 3: COMMON LABORATORY OPERATIONS

THEORY

Several tools are used inside the laboratory, each one with its own purpose. Various lab operations are practiced inside the
laboratory, such as lighting a Bunsen burner, measuring volumes of liquids and solids, and so on. These are frequently
done in the laboratory, so proper execution of the operations and techniques is needed to ensure the experimenters’
safety.

OPERATING A BUNSEN BURNER

PARTS OF A BUNSEN BURNER

The Bunsen burner (as seen and labeled in Figure 3 on the left) consists of these parts:
1. Barrel – this is where the fuel and air mix to produce the flame.
2. Mouth – this is the place of ignition or where the flame comes out (or should
come out)
3. Collar– this controls the amount of air that enters. It closes and opens the air
holes.
4. Air Holes – this allows air to enter depending on the collar’s position.
5. Gas Regulator (Valve) – controls the amount of gas coming into the gas
spud (more gas, larger flame)
6. Gas Spud (inside the burner) – regulates the amount of gas to be combusted.
7. Gas Inlet – allows gas to enter the burner from the hose.
8. Rubber Tubing – is attached to the gas inlet of the burner and is connected
to a gas outlet/source
9. Base – supports the Bunsen burner. Prevents the burner from making contact
Figure 3: Bunsen burner with the work surface.

LIGHTING AND PUTTING OUT THE BUNSEN BURNER

A. Lighting the Bunsen burner.
1. Before lighting the Bunsen burner, make sure that the gas regulator valve is fully closed by turning it
clockwise and that the air holes are half-open (adjust the collar to do this).
2. Open the gas regulator valve slightly and light a matchstick.
3. Open the gas source/tap slowly.
4. Adjust the flame until you achieve a flame about 10 cm high.
B. Adjusting the Type and Height of Flame
1. Adjust the gas regulator valve to control the height of the flame. In some cases, you may want a
shorter/lower flame or a taller/higher flame.
2. Adjust the collar to open or close the air holes. The flame’s color changes depending on if the airholes are
open or closed.
a. If the air hole is closed, the flame turns yellow and luminous. It is the colder of two flames. This is
usually used to confirm that the Bunsen burner is working properly and will leave soot on heated
containers or objects. The soot is actually the one causing the flame to be luminous.
b. If the air hole is open, the flame turns blue and non-luminous. It is the hotter of two flames and
is the type of flame used for heating. It will not leave any soot on heated containers or objects.
C. Putting out the Bunsen burner.
1. Close the gas source/tap.
2. Close the gas regulator valve. Do not blow out the gas flame.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TYPES OF FLAMES:

Combustion is commonly called burning and the substance that burns is usually referred to as a fuel. Sufficient air or
oxygen is needed for the complete combustion of a fuel.

Complete combustion of a fuel yields carbon dioxide and water vapor. This reaction typically gives off heat and a non-
luminous flame. The general reaction for a complete combustion reaction is:

𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + O2(𝑔) → CO2(𝑔) + H2 O(𝑔) + heat

In the Bunsen burner, this occurs when the air holes are opened to produce a blue flame.

Incomplete combustion occurs when the supply of air or oxygen is poor. It yields carbon monoxide and pure carbon
aside from carbon dioxide and water vapor. This pure carbon is called soot. The flame produced is a luminous one due to
the soot particles.

𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + O2(𝑔) → CO2(𝑔) + H2 O(𝑔) + CO(𝑔) + C(𝑠) + heat

In the Bunsen burner, this occurs when the air holes are closed to produce a yellow flame.

In heating using a Bunsen burner, always use the blue flame.

MORE COMMON OPERATIONS

MEASURING VOLUMES OF LIQUIDS

1. Fill a test tube, beaker, or other container (especially non-graduated containers) to the brim with water.
2. Measure each volume separately using a graduated cylinder.
3. In reading the graduated cylinder, place it on a flat surface and keep the eye at level with the lower meniscus
(rounded portion) of the liquid (whenever it is visible).
NOTE: If the liquid forms a convex meniscus, use the top of the meniscus instead. If the upper meniscus is visible
while the lower meniscus is not, use that instead of guessing where the lower meniscus is.
4. Record the volume of the liquid to two decimal places (or one more decimal digit than the smallest graduation of
the graduated cylinder is calibrated for).

For example, if the graduated cylinder is 10 mL with the smallest mark representing 0.1 mL, you can record to 2 decimal
places. For a 100 mL graduated cylinder where the smallest mark represents 1 mL, you can record to 1 decimal place. In
both cases, you still get 3 significant digits in most measurements.

TRANSFERRING LIQUIDS
1. Hold a beaker or container with liquid using one hand, and a glass rod or piece of glass tubing with the other.
2. Hold the lip of the beaker (or a container with a lip) or the mouth of a container without a lip (such as an
Erlenmeyer flask or a test tube) against the glass rod and place the free end of the rod or tube into another empty
container
3. Carefully pour the water and let it glide down the side of the rod or tube into the other container.

One must use a glass rod or piece of glass tubing to transfer liquids because it helps guide the liquid into the other vessel
to prevent spillage or wastage of liquid. This is especially helpful if the second vessel is smaller or has a smaller opening
(though not small enough to necessitate the use of a funnel).
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

HEATING A TEST TUBE

1. Partially fill a test tube with liquid (not more than 3/4)
2. Hold the test tube with a test tube holder and position it at a 45° angle.
3. Heat the liquid by slowly moving back and forth through the flame in such a manner that the top of the flame is
near the top of the liquid but does not touch the empty part of the test tube.

IMPORTANT REMINDER: Never point the opening a test tube towards another person or to yourself. There are three
good reasons for this:

A. Liquid can splash or get ejected by gas formation.

B. Liquids or vapors may be explosive or reactive when heated. A good way to check for this is the presence of an
explosive symbol, or, in the case of an NFPA 704 diamond, a number of 1 or higher in the yellow Reactivity
diamond (right-hand diamond) or the presence of an OX or W symbol in the white Special diamond (bottom
diamond).
C. Liquids or vapors released may be toxic or irritating. A good way to check for this is the presence of any of the
GHS pictograms for: toxic, harmful, or health hazard. In the case of an NFPA 704 diamond, a number of 2 or
higher in the blue Health diamond (left-hand diamond) indicates the toxicity.

In heating the liquid, the upper portion of the liquid should be heated rather than the bottom as heating the bottom may
cause gases that want to escape quickly and eject liquid. This is the same reason (A) why you should not point the test
tube towards anyone, including yourself.

Flammable liquids (showing the flammable symbol or a number of 1 or higher in the red Flammability diamond (top
diamond)), are usually heated using a water bath instead, and must never be heated with just an open flame.

INVESTIGATING ODORS
Many substances have characteristic odors. Some have agreeable odors while others have disagreeable or irritating odors.
Be cautious in investigating odors. Some vapors, when inhaled, can be lethal (a good indicator of this is a health code of 3
or 4 [blue or left-hand diamond] of the NFPA 704 Fire Diamond)

When investigating odors, never directly sniff from the container. Instead, cup your hand above the container and waft or
fan the vapor towards your face, and bring in just enough such that the smell can be detected. Try not to breathe in
through your nose.

This may be a slower method of detecting the odor or smell of a reagent, but it can lessen the effects of toxic or irritant
vapors, as gas expands and diffuses, reducing its concentration as it is exposed to more space.

PHYSICAL SEPARATION OF COMPONENTS OF MIXTURES

Here, we will see the processes in the separation of a mixture of table salt, naphthalene, sand, and food coloring.

APPARATUS NEEDED
• 1 – 100 mL beaker
• 2 – 250 mL beakers
• 1 – 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask
• 1 – 10 mL graduated cylinder (also featured is a 100 mL graduated cylinder)
• 4 – 25 mL test tubes
• Bunsen burner
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

• Clay flame shield

• Crucible tongs
• Evaporating dish
• Florence flask
• Funnel
• Glass rod
• Test tube rack
• Test tube holder
• Watch glass
• Water bath
• Wire gauze

MATERIALS NEEDED
• 0.1 g of activated carbon (not part of the mixture)
• Filter papers
• Mixture of 0.5 g table salt,
• 0.5 g naphthalene,
• 1.0 g of sand, and a dash food coloring

PROCEDURE

PART 1: SUBLIMATION
1. Prepare a water bath and place on top of a (lit) Bunsen burner using clay flame shield and wire gauze.
2. Place the mixture in a beaker and place the beaker in the water bath and cover with a watch glass.
3. Heat gently until white crystals cling to the bottom of the watch glass. Turn off the flame of the Bunsen burner.
4. Carefully remove the watch glass (using a pair of crucible tongs or beaker tongs) making sure the crystals
clinging to the watch glass are intact.
5. Remove the beaker from the water bath.
6. Scrape off the crystals on the watch glass and on the walls of the beaker and collect them on a piece of paper.
Return the collected crystals to the laboratory counter. Remove the water bath after this part as the Bunsen
burner setup with flame shield and wire gauze will be used in a later part of the procedure.

Substance separated: Naphthalene [Sublimate]

PART 2: DECANTATION
7. Add 50 mL of water to the beaker containing the remaining mixture and let stand for 2 minutes.
8. After 2 minutes, slowly pour off the liquid to another beaker. Use the glass rod to help you pour the liquid. Care
must be taken to ensure that the solid remains inside the container.

Substance separated: Sand [Residue]

Supernatant liquid consists of: water, salt, and food coloring.

PART 3: ADSORPTION AND FILTRATION

9. Add 0.1 g activated carbon to the liquid. Mix using a stirring rod.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

10. Boil the mixture for 3 minutes by placing the beaker on top of a (lit) Bunsen burner using clay flame shield and
wire gauze. Observe the changes in the color of the liquid. Cool and reserve for the next procedure.

The activated carbon changes the color of the liquid from whatever color of food coloring was used to black.

11. Prepare the filter paper as follows:

a. Fold the filter paper in half.
b. Fold again in half to form a quarter.
c. Part the folded filter paler and (optional) tear off a small portion in one of the corners.
d. Open the filter paper forming a cone in such a way that it has three layers on one side and one layer on
the other.
e. Expand the filter paper, place into the funnel and moisten it with water to make it stick to the side of the
funnel.
12. With the moistened filter paper, carefully pour the contents of the beaker reserved in step 10 into the funnel.

NOTE: The cone of the filter paper should always be smaller than that of the funnel (i.e., no part of the filter paper should
protrude above the edge of the funnel).

Substance separated: food coloring (Adsorption), activated carbon (Filtration) [Residue]

Filtrate consists of: water, salt

PART 4: EVAPORATION
13. Transfer half of the clear liquid obtained after Part 3 to an evaporating dish.
14. Place the evaporating dish with liquid on the ceramic center of the wire gauze, reusing the setup from Part 3.
Cover with a watch glass.
15. Allow the liquid to evaporate slowly until all the liquid has been evaporated and crystals are formed.
16. After all the liquid has been evaporated, turn off the flame and remove the watch glass (using a pair of crucible
tongs). Observe the solid left in the evaporating dish.

Substance separated: Salt [Residue]

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 4: CALORIMETRY

THEORY

Calorimetry is the science of measuring a quantity of heat. Heat is a form of energy associated with the motion of atoms
or molecules of a substance. Heat, Q, is measured in energy units such as joules (J) or calories (cal). Temperature, T, is
measured in degrees Celsius, °C, degrees Fahrenheit, °F, or kelvin, K. Temperature and heat relate to one another by the
specific heat (under constant pressure) 𝑐𝑝 of a substance. Specific heat is defined as the quantity of heat needed to raise
the temperature of one gram of substance by one degree Celsius/one Kelvin (J/g °C or J/g K). The relationship between
quantity of heat Q, specific heat 𝑐𝑝 , mass m, and temperature change is expressed by:

Q = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 Δ𝑇

The units are thus: J = (g)(J/g℃)(℃)

CALORIMETRY

APPARATUS NEEDED
• 1 – 250 mL beaker
• 2 – 400 mL beakers
• 2 – 6 oz. Styrofoam cups
• 4 test tubes (or as many test tubes as there are pure metal samples)
• 2 thermometers
• Bunsen burner
• Crucible tongs
• Digital balance, platform balance or triple-beam balance
• Cut Styrofoam cup or cardboard cut into 4” squares with a small hole (enough to pass a thermometer) in the
middle.
• Iron stand, ring, and clamp.
• Test tube clamp
• Wire gauze

MATERIALS NEEDED
• Unknown pure metal samples that will fit in a 22 mm test tube. (4 samples were tested)

EXPERIMENT PROPER
1. Set up the iron ring, wire gauze, clamp, stand, and Bunsen burner. Place an empty 400 mL beaker on the iron
ring.
2. Weigh a dry metal sample. Record the mass of the metal (𝑚𝑀 ) and its name if you can readily identify it.
3. Carefully slide the metal sample into a large dry test tube and put a thermometer beside it in the test tube.
4. Attach the test tube to an iron stand and place it into the empty 400 mL beaker in the set-up earlier. The bottom
of the test tube should be at least half an inch above the bottom of the beaker. Make sure that the height of the
beaker is adjusted so that the hottest part of the flame will be on the bottom of the beaker.
5. Fill the beaker with tap water so that the height of the water in the beaker is about 2 inches higher than the top
of the metal sample. There should be no water inside the test tube. Keep the water boiling for about 10 minutes
and let the temperature in the test tube stabilize.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

The metal should be heated in a dry test tube instead as some metals can be flammable. Group 1 metals such as sodium
and potassium are reactive with water, and thus unsuitable for use in this experiment.

6. Heat the water in the beaker. As you are working, check the water and note when it starts to boil. Turn down the
burner but keep the water gently boiling when it does so.
The water in the beaker gets its heat energy from the Bunsen burner…

7. While waiting for the temperature of the water to stabilize, nest two dry Styrofoam cups together, weigh them,
and record the mass. Place 50 mL water (equivalent to 50 g water (𝑚𝑊 )) into the nested Styrofoam cups.
There should be enough water in the calorimeter to cover the metal sample completely as this makes sure as much heat in
the heat in the metal transfers to the water rather than to the calorimeter itself.
8. Cover the Styrofoam cup with either the cardboard or cut Styrofoam cup and insert a thermometer through the
hole. The nested cups with the cover and thermometer are referred to as a calorimeter. For added stability, place
the calorimeter into a small beaker. The cover must rest directly on top of the Styrofoam cups and not on the
beaker.
9. Measure and record the initial temperature of the water (𝑇𝑊𝑖 ). Leave the thermometer in the cover until you are
ready to transfer the hot metal into the calorimeter.
10. After the water in the beaker has been boiling for 10 minutes and the temperature inside the test tube with the
metal has been stable for 5 minutes, record the temperature. This is the initial temperature of the metal (𝑇𝑀𝑖 ).
Remove the thermometer from the test tube and set aside so it does not get mixed up with the thermometer used
in the calorimeter.
11. Transfer the metal from the test tube to the water in the calorimeter. Do this by removing the test tube clamp on
the iron stand, removing the cover and thermometer, and quickly sliding the metal into the water in the
calorimeter.
12. Immediately put the cover with the thermometer back on the Styrofoam cup. Stir gently for 2 to 3 minutes while
monitoring the temperature. Record the temperature after it has remained constant for about 1 minute. This is
the final temperature (𝑇𝑓 ).
…and the water in the calorimeter gets its heat energy from the metal sample. The initial temperature of the water causes
the metal to lose heat, as it is cooler than the metal.
13. Repeat the procedure using other unknown metals.

COMPUTATION OF DATA
14. Use these formulas for calculation:
Δ𝑇𝑊 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑊𝑖 for the change in temperature of the water.
𝑄𝑊 = (4.184 𝐽/𝑔℃)𝑚𝑊 Δ𝑇𝑊 for the heat gained by the water.
Δ𝑇𝑀 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑀𝑖 for the change in temperature of the metal.
𝑄𝑀 = −𝑄𝑊 for the heat lost by the metal.
𝑄𝑊
𝑐𝑀 = for the specific heat of the metal
−𝑚𝑀 Δ𝑇𝑀
From the specific heat of the metal, determine the metal’s name if not already identified.
|𝑇𝑉−𝐸𝑉|
15. Calculate the percentage error by using this formula: 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%, where 𝑇𝑉 is the
𝑇𝑉
theoretical value (given) and 𝐸𝑉 is the experimental value (determined from the experiment). The closer the error
is to 0%, the better.
16. Plot a graph comparing the specific heat of the metal and its atomic mass.
The heavier the metal is, the lower its specific heat.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 5: HEAT OF COMBUSTION

THEORY

The combustion of organic compounds like alcohols produce large quantities of energy. Ethanol is commonly used as
fuel in motor vehicles and its usage is increasing because it is a form of renewable energy (like in bioethanol through
cassava). What makes a good fuel, though? A good fuel is a substance that gives out large amounts of energy when
combusted. In most cases, fuels are bunt in oxygen or air (i.e., are oxidized).

The experiment below aims to find out the relationship between the number of carbon atoms in the alcohol chain and the
standard enthalpy change of combustion. The heat of combustion or standard enthalpy change of combustion is the
enthalpy change when one mole of the compound undergoes complete combustion in excess oxygen under standard
conditions. It has the symbol ΔH°comb or ΔH°c and standard conditions refer to room conditions with a temperature of
25 °C or 298.15 K and a pressure of 1 atm. The combustion of alcohol is an exothermic process. It releases heat to the
surroundings, resulting in a negative value.

HEAT OF COMBUSTION

APPARATUS NEEDED
• Alcohol lamp (spirit burner)
• Aluminum can
• Clay triangle
• Digital balance
• 100 mL graduated cylinder
• Iron ring and stand
• 4” × 4” square cardboard with a hole in the middle
• Thermometer

MATERIALS NEEDED
• 300 mL distilled water
• 3 samples of unknown pure alcohol as fuel

EXPERIMENT PROPER
NOTE: Alcohols are organic substances that are flammable and easily catch fire when exposed to naked flames. It is a fire
hazard. Care must be taken to ensure that any spills are cleaned up immediately. Safety goggles must be worn while
performing this experiment. A fire extinguisher (that can handle Class B fires [see Lesson 2 to find out what are Class B
fires]) should also be kept close by in case of emergencies.

1. Measure 100 mL of water and pour it carefully into an aluminum can.

2. Read the initial temperature of the water, 𝑇𝑖 , and record.
3. Cover the aluminum can with the cardboard then insert the thermometer through the hole.
4. Weigh the alcohol lamp containing the alcohol sample used as fuel, 𝑚𝑖 , and record.
5. Position the aluminum can on top of the clay triangle and place both on the iron ring.
6. Adjust the iron ring such that the distance between the wick of the alcohol lamp and the aluminum can is
approximately 1 cm.
7. Light the alcohol lamp and heat the water.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

8. During heating, stir the water gently until it boils. When the water boils, read the temperature of the water and
record. Do not touch the aluminum can when taking the temperature of the water.
9. Continue stirring the water gently and take note of the maximum temperature reached by the water, 𝑇𝑓 , and
record.
10. Extinguish the flame of the alcohol lamp by placing the cap back on.
11. Remove the aluminum can carefully.
12. Reweigh the alcohol lamp, 𝑚𝑓 , and record.
13. Repeat steps 1 to 12 for the other 2 unknown alcohol samples.

COMPUTATION OF DATA
14. Calculate the standard enthalpy of combustion Δ𝐻°c per mole of alcohol*.
|𝑇𝑉−𝐸𝑉|
15. Calculate the percentage error by using this formula: 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%, where 𝑇𝑉 is the
𝑇𝑉
theoretical value (given) and 𝐸𝑉 is the experimental value (determined from the experiment). The closer the error
is to 0%, the better.
16. Plot a graph relating the standard enthalpy of combustion and the number of carbon atoms in an alcohol.

*Formulas are shown below.

QUANTITATIVE DATA AND FORMULAS

I. Distilled Water
• Volume in mL 𝑉 = 100 mL
• Density of water in g/mL 𝜌 = 1.0 g/mL
• Specific heat capacity, J/g °C 𝑐H2 O = 4.18 J/g℃
• Mass, g 𝑚H2O = 𝜌𝑉
• Change in temperature, °C Δ𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖
• Enthalpy change during combustion, J Δ𝐻H2 O = 𝑚H2 O 𝑐H2 O Δ𝑇
II. Alcohol
• Mass of burnt alcohol, g 𝑚A = 𝑚𝑖 − 𝑚𝑓
• Molar mass of alcohol, g/mol 𝑀𝑀 = 12𝐶 + 𝐻 + 16𝑂

𝐶 is the number of carbon atoms, 𝐻 is the number of hydrogen atoms, and 𝑂 is the number of oxygen atoms.
𝑚A
• Number of moles, mol 𝑛=
𝑀𝑀
−Δ𝐻H2 O
• Standard enthalpy of combustion, J/mol Δ𝐻°C =
𝑛

More carbon atoms in the alcohol mean more heat is released, so methanol (CH3OH) or wood alcohol would evolve the
least heat. The different forms of propanol (1-propanol or n-propanol and 2-propanol or isopropanol/isopropyl alcohol)
and butanol would both release more heat than ethanol but is not currently used as fuel as no renewable source of
propanol or butanol exists (yes, crude oil, where isopropanol comes from, is not renewable), unlike ethanol, which can be
produced by fermentation of sugars.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 6: REDOX REACTIONS

THEORIES ON REDOX REACTIONS

REDOX REACTIONS
The term redox combines the words reduction and oxidation. Redox reactions involve the transport of electrons from an
electron donor, known as the reducing agent or the oxidized molecule, to an electron acceptor, known as the oxidizing
agent or the reduced molecule. For a redox reaction to occur, a molecule has to be reduced by another molecule that gets
oxidized.

Remember: The substance that loses electrons is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced.

To determine the oxidation state of an element, we can view the periodic table. This number is defined as the formal
charge on the atom if all bonds were assumed to be fully ionic.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1
2
3 +1 +2 -3
0
4 (incl. +2 +3 or (some -2 -1
+2
5 H) Tend to have multiple oxidation numbers (Hg +4 +5)
has
6 (Mt, Ds, and Rg – Unknown) +1)
7 Unknown

6 3+ (e.g. La, Lu)

7 +3 (e.g. Ac, Lr) or +4 (viz. Th, U, Pu)

The oxidation number or oxidation state of an atom reflects the number of electrons it has. Though it looks like a charge,
it is not the same as the actual charge on the atom. The general rules for determining oxidation numbers are:

• A pure element’s oxidation state is always 0.

• For a monoatomic ion, its oxidation state is equivalent to its charge.
• In general, the oxidation states for hydrogen, oxygen, and fluorine in a compound are +1, -2, and -1, respectively.
(Exceptions: hydrogen is -1 in a metal hydride, oxygen is -1 in a peroxide)
• General oxidation states for some other elements, such as metals, can be determined based on their position in
the periodic table. (See reference table 1 below for oxidation states of elements)
• The sum of the oxidation states for all atoms in any chemical species is equal to the charge, e.g., for neutral
molecules, the sum is 0, for anions with a net charge of -1, it is -1.

HALF-REACTIONS
For a redox reaction to occur, one molecule must be reduced by another molecule that gets oxidized. A redox half-
reaction describes either the reduction or the oxidation part of the full redox reaction. In other words, each half-reaction
considers the changes in the oxidation state to the individual molecules involved in the redox reaction.

The electrons lost by the reducing agent or substance oxidized are the same as those gained by the oxidizing agent or
substance reduced. This means that in a redox reaction, in addition to balancing the number of atoms for each element,
the number of electrons must also be balanced.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

To balance a redox reaction in an aqueous environment, we must first determine if the environment is acidic or alkaline.
Depending on the environment, H2O, H+, and/or OH– should be added to the reaction.

In an acidic environment, we do these:

1. Find the half-reactions

2. Balance all atoms except O and H
3. Balance oxygen by adding H2O
4. Balance hydrogen by adding H+
5. Balance the charges by adding e–
6. Balance e– and add up the half-reactions.

In an alkaline environment, we start as for an acidic environment, but after adding e–, we neutralize the H+ by adding
OH-, then balance all H+, OH– and e– and add up the half-reactions.

REDUCTION POTENTIALS
Each half-reaction has a certain redox potential, also known as a reduction potential, which is the tendency of the
molecule to be reduced by gaining electrons. It is measured in volts (V) or millivolts (mV). The oxidation potential is the
negative of the reduction potential. The more positive the reduction potential, the greater its tendency to be reduced.
Conversely, the more negative it is, the greater its tendency to be oxidized.

The standard reduction potential is measured against a reference electrode (such as the standard hydrogen electrode or
SHE) under specific conditions:

• Temperature of 25 °C
• 1 M concentration for the (aqueous) ionic species part of the reaction
• 1 atm pressure for the gaseous species part of the reaction
• Metals in pure states.

The redox reaction between two chemical species depends on the relevant strengths of the reductants and oxidants.

The direction of the reaction can be estimated from a reactivity series that ranks molecules by their strength as oxidizing
or reducing agents (such as Reference Table 5 below) or calculated from the redox potential.

From a reactivity series, the more reactive molecule undergoes reduction while the other one undergoes oxidation.
Mathematically, the cell potential can be calculated as:

Ecell = Ecathode − Eanode

If the result is positive, the reaction occurs spontaneously (without needing any outside energy) and potential energy is
released into another form, such as heat or electricity. If it is negative, however, energy is required for the reaction to
proceed and the reaction is not spontaneous.

METAL REACTIVITY
The metal reactivity series places metals in the order of most reactive to least reactive and is used to predict the reactions
of metals with water or acid or displacement reactions such as redox reactions.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Figure 4: Metal reactivity series (Source: "Reactivity series", 2020)

In the context of redox reactions, metals classed as more reactive are likelier to be reduced than those classified as less
reactive, which in turn are likelier to be oxidized. In a reaction between a more reactive and a less reactive metal, the more
reactive metal is reduced and the less reactive metal is oxidized. The further the metals are away from each other in the
reactivity series, the larger the cell potential.

THEORIES ON GALVANIC CELLS

GALVANIC CELLS
In galvanic cells, the oxidation half=reaction occurs at the anode. Electrons are deposited on this electrode, so it is the
negative electrode. The reduction half-reaction occurs at the cathode, which loses electrons and is therefore the positive
electrode. The two half-reactions are physically separated, forcing the electrons to move through an external circuit. This
is what generates electricity.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

To allow the reaction to continue, the charges must be balanced and ions must be able to move between the cells. Without
this movement of ions, the cells would build up net charges (positive for anode, negative for cathode) and the reaction
would stop. Both anions and cations contribute to balancing the charges and completing the circuit. In a galvanic cell, the
ions can move through a salt bridge (see above) or a porous membrane between the half-cells.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

The potential of a galvanic cell can be calculated using:

Ecell = Ecathode − Eanode

A positive cell potential means the reaction occurs spontaneously and the cell generates power.

REAL WORLD APPLICATIONS

In general, a battery is a collection of galvanic cells. A lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is a rechargeable battery (also
known as a secondary cell) widely used in small electronics and, increasingly, in hybrid and electric vehicles. Both the
anode and cathode contain lithium atoms in the Li-ion battery. The anode is typically lithium cobalt (III) oxide (LiCoO2 ) in
handheld electronics or lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO2 or NMC) in electric vehicles. (Note: Some
smartphones use lithium-polymer batteries, which have a similar technology). The cathode is often graphite.

While generating power, the outcome of the oxidation reaction at the anode are positively-charged lithium ions and
negatively-charged electrons. At the cathode, the lithium cations gain electrons to form a lithium compound with a
neutral charge. During charging, these reactions take place in the opposite direction and electrons move from the positive
anode to the positive cathode, storing electrical energy as chemical energy in the cell.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 7: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

THEORIES REGARDING NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE

The strong nuclear force (SNF) is one of the four fundamental forces in the standard model of particle physics along
with the electromagnetic force, the weak nuclear force, and gravitation. The SNF keeps the neutrons and protons together
in the nucleus, outweighing the repulsion between similar charges created by the electromagnetic force.

This force affects all particles very close to each other. It can only be perceived at distances smaller than 1 femtometer or
10-15 meters, which means it is only perceptible inside the atomic nucleus. The SNF is several orders of magnitude stronger
than the rest of the fundamental forces at small scales. As soon as the distance between particles is above the femtometer,
it has no effect, and other forces like gravity or electromagnetism become much stronger.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation. This radiation
is emitted in various forms. Three such forms are:

• Alpha decay, where an unstable isotope emits 2 protons and 2 neutrons, or a helium-4 nucleus. This typically
happens for very heavy elements and causes the original nucleus to reduce its atomic mass by 4 and atomic
number by 2. Any time an alpha decay occurs, the result is a helium-4 nucleus and a nucleus of an element with
an atomic number 2 units lower than the original atom.

Example 1: Polonium-210 (Z = 84) undergoes alpha decay into lead-206 (Z = 82)

Example 2: Though this typically happens for very heavy elements, an isotope of one light element, beryllium-8
(Z= 4), exhibits this kind of decay, where beryllium-8 decays into two helium-4 nuclei (Z= 2).

• Beta decay, more specifically beta-minus decay, where an unstable isotope emits a fast energetic electron to
compensate for the relationship between protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

In this type of decay, a neutron from the nucleus turns into a proton and a highly energetic electron. This
electron, generated in the nucleus, is expelled from it in a high energy state. The atomic mass is almost constant
(only one electron is lost), while the atomic number increases by 1 unit. The total loss of mass is smaller than in
alpha decay, since only 1 electron is expelled from the atom.

Example 1: One neutron of boron-12 (Z=5) turns into a proton, resulting in carbon-12 (Z=6) and the emission of
an electron from the nucleus.
Example 2: Carbon-14 (Z=6) undergoes beta decay int nitrogen-14 (Z=7).
• Gamma decay is a type of radioactive decay that happens when an isotope is at a high energy level or excited
state, usually represented with the letter “m” (for isomer) at the end of the name of the isotope (e.g.,
Protactinium-234m). Normally, this results from a previous radioactive decay (alpha or beta).

Since the isotope is in an excited state, energy must be emitted to reach a more stable or lower energy level. This
energy is emitted via a highly energetic photon known as gamma radiation or a gamma ray expelled from the
nucleus. Since the mass of a photon is very low, the loss of mass in the nucleus is negligible. Gamma radiation
does not modify the atomic mass or the atomic number of the isotope, but simply takes it to a lower energy level
or less excited state.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

It is a stochastic or random process for each individual atom. We cannot predict when a nucleus will decay, but we can
use a parameter called half-life to describe how likely it is for an atom to decay.

The half-life of an isotope represents the time it will take for half of the atoms of a sample of that isotope to decay into
another, more stable element or isotope. For example, carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon, has a half-life of 5700
years. This means that if we have some material containing a certain amount of C-14, after 5700 years the amount of C-14
will be half of the initial. 50% of the C-14 atoms will have undergone beta(-minus) decay and turned to nitrogen-14.

REAL WORLD APPLICATIONS

Radioactive decay has many applications. For example, carbon-14 is used to date fossils. We can infer the concentration of
carbon-14 in the past by several indirect methods, and by measuring the concentration of C-14 in the present, we know
how much C-14 is left. Since we know that C-14 has a half-life of 5700 years, the C-14 left in the fossil is a direct indicator
of its age. This technique is used worldwide to determine the age of fossils up to 50 000 years old.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 8: CONCRETE MATERIALS TESTING

CEMENT AND CONCRETE STANDARDS

Cement and concrete standards are used to evaluate and test concrete, cement, and aggregates. Concrete can have
various properties depending on the mixture of aggregates, cement, and chemical admixtures used in creating it. These
are mixed with water to create concrete, the primary construction material in buildings. The standards below allow
laboratories all over the world to test and evaluate concrete mixtures to ensure their strength and safety and help to
identify the various properties of concrete such as strength, elasticity, hardness, and workability.

The Australian standards are:

• AS 1012.2:2014 Method 2 Preparing concrete mixes in the laboratory

• AS 1012.3.1:2014 Determination of properties related to the consistency of concrete – Slump test
• AS 1012.9:2014 Method 9: Compressive strength tests – Concrete, mortar and grout specimens
• AS 1141.11.1:2009. Methods for sampling and testing aggregates – Particle size distribution – Sieving method

The ASTM standards are:

• ASTM C39 / C39M – 18: Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
• ASTM C136 / C136M – 14: Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates
• ASTM C143 / C143M – 15a: Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete
• ASTM C172 / C172M – 17: Standard Practice for Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete.

WHAT IS CONCRETE?

Concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates. The paste, composed of cement and water, coats the surface of both the
fine and the coarse aggregates. Through a reaction known as hydration, the paste hardens and becomes strong enough
to enclose and fix the aggregate to form the rock-like mass known as concrete.

AGGREGATES

Aggregates are one of the major constituents of concrete and their properties greatly influence its basic properties.

The fineness modulus of fine aggregates is an index number representing the average size of the particles found in a
sand. It is calculated through a sieve analysis with standard sieves according to AS 1141.11.1-2009. The cumulative
percentage retained on each sieve is added before subtracting it from 100, giving the value of fine aggregate. We need not
determine the fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.

The fineness modulus of fine aggregates varies from 2.0 to 3.5 mm. Fine aggregates with a fineness modulus greater than
3.2 should not be considered fine aggregates for concrete. Various values of fineness modulus for different fineness of sand
are detailed in the table below. The size and shapes of particles in the fine aggregate alter the workability of concrete.
Finer sand requires more water to achieve the workability that a coarser sand provides.

Type of Sand/Aggregate Fineness Modulus Range

Fine sand 2.2 – 2.6
Medium sand 2.6 – 2.9
Coarse sand 3.0 – 3.2
Coarse aggregate for concrete >3.2
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

SIEVE ANALYSIS

Sieve analysis is dividing a sample of aggregates into fractions of the same particle size. It determines the paste
requirement for a workable concrete since the amount of void needs to be filled by the same amount of cement paste in a
concrete mixture. In a sieve analysis, a sample of dry aggregate of known weight is graded by vibrating or shaking
through a series of sieves with progressively smaller openings, with the largest sieve at the top, for a specified time.

Example of such a sequence of sieves includes a sequence of 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 0.6 mm, 0.3 mm, 0.15 mm, and
0.075 mm for fine aggregates and a sequence of 19 mm, 13.2 mm, 9.5 mm, 6.7 mm, and 4.75 mm for coarse aggregates, all
sizes conforming to ASTM E11 and ISO 565/3310-1.

Particle size distribution is expressed in terms of percentage by weight passing the various sieves. Proper gradation or size
distribution of aggregates ensures that a sample of aggregate contains all standard fractions of aggregate in the required
proportion such that the sample has minimum voids. It is one of the most important factors in producing workable
concrete. A properly-graded sample requires the least paste to fill up the voids in aggregates, meaning less cement, less
water, increased economy, higher strength, lower shrinkage, and greater durability.

Fine and coarse aggregates should be graded in dry conditions. The sample size should represent the whole consignment.
The aggregates should be air dried and of sufficient quantity, as specified in the table below to produce accurate result.
Normal Maximum Aggregate Size, mm Minimum Weight of Sample, kg
75 30
40 15
28 20
20 3
14 1.5 (1500 g)
10 0.8 (800 g)
7 0.5 (500 g)
5 0.3 (300 g)
Fine aggregates 0.15 (150 g)
For aggregates, we have three types of grades:

1. Single-sized – particles are almost all of the same size. Leads to the lowest quality of cement.
2. Poorly-graded – particles are of multiple sizes but still leave a sizeable void.
3. Well-graded – particles are of multiple sizes and leave a very small void.

Single-sized aggregate samples require the most cement, while well-graded aggregate samples require the least cement.
Well-graded aggregate produces the strongest concrete while single-sized aggregate produces the weakest concrete.

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

The results of the sieve analysis are presented in a graph of percent passing versus the sieve size. On the graph shown in
the next page, the sieve size scale is logarithmic. To find the percent of aggregates passing through each sieve, we find the
percent retained in each sieve. We add up the total amount of aggregate retained in each sieve and the amount in the
previous sieves. The cumulative percent passing of the aggregate is found by subtracting the percent retained from 100%.
The values are then plotted on a graph with the cumulative percent passing on the y-axis and the logarithmic size of the
sieves on the x-axis.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

The figure on the right shows the typical particle

size distribution of fine aggregate sample vs. an
ideal particle size distribution giving maximum
packing density.

MIXING CONCRETE

Good quality concrete in its fresh state should be

flowable enough to be transported and placed in
the formwork with good cohesiveness. The
properties of fresh concrete should be of high
interest as they directly influence the handling,
placing, and consolidation, as well as the Figure 5: Sieve analysis chart (Source: "Particle size distribution", 2020)
properties of hardened concrete.

The key to achieving a strong, durable concrete rests in the

careful proportioning and mixing of the ingredients. The
ingredients to be batched should follow the specified mix
proportions and the moisture content of the aggregates should
be determined with reference to their Saturated Surface Dry
(SSD) conditions so that the specified water/cement (w/c) ratio
is not altered. In general, the higher the w/c ratio the higher
the workability of fresh concrete as more mixing water can
lubricate the mixture; however, the strength decreases with
increasing w/c ratio. All the ingredients should be added and
mixed properly and thoroughly in the concrete mixer for an
adequate mixing time.

WORKABILITY OF THE FRES H CONCRETE

Workability is the property of concrete to be properly

compacted, transported, placed and finished sufficiently easily
without segregation. The primary characteristics of workability
are:

• Consistency or fluidity, which is used to measure

the ease of flow of fresh concrete.
Figure 6: Mixing procedure (Source: "Mixing concrete",
• Cohesiveness is used to describe the ability of fresh
2020)
concrete to hold all ingredients together without
segregation and excessive bleeding.

Factors affecting workability include:

1. Water content
2. Aggregate mix proportion
3. Maximum aggregate size
4. Aggregate properties
5. Cement
6. Admixtures
7. Ambient temperature and time.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Conventional test methods commonly available are:

1. Slump test
2. Compacting factor test
3. Vebe test

The table below shows the correlation among the workability test results under different degrees of workability for the
corresponding concrete applications

Degree of Slump Compacting Vebe Purpose/Concrete Application

Workability (mm) factor time
Very Low 0-10 0.70-0.78 >20 Very high strength concrete for pre-stressed concrete
sections, compacted by heavy vibration.
Low 15-30 0.78-0.85 12-20 High strength concrete sections, paving and mass concrete,
compacted by vibration
Medium 35-75 0.85-0.92 6-12 Normally reinforced concrete sections, compacted by
vibration; hand compacted mass concrete.
High 80-155 0.92-0.95 3-6 Heavily-reinforced concrete sections compacted by
vibration; hand-compacted concrete in normally reinforced
beams, columns, and walls
Very High >160 >0.95 0-3 Heavily reinforced concrete sections compacted without
vibration; cast in-situ piling.

SLUMP TEST

The slump test has been commonly used on site

because it is simple. For a given mix of
aggregates and cement, slump is governed by the
quantity of water mixed in. In general, the higher
the slump value, the higher the workability of
the fresh concrete. The slump is defined as
shown in the figure on the right.

In order to perform the slump test in accordance

with AS 1012.3.1:2014:

1. A steel slump cone is placed on a solid,

impermeable, level base and filled with
fresh concrete in 3 equal layers.
2. Each layer is rodded 25 times while
holding the cone, to ensure compaction.
The strokes should be distributed in a
uniform manner over the cross-section
of the cone and each layer has to be
penetrated when tamping. Figure 7: Slumps (Source: "Slump test", 2020)
3. After the third layer has been rodded,
the level of the concrete has to reach the
tip of the cone. The cone should be carefully lifted up, leaving a heap of concrete that settles or ‘slumps’ slightly.
4. The upturned slump cone is placed on the base to act as a reference, and the difference in level between its top
and the top of the concrete is measured and recorded to the nearest 5 mm to give the slump of the concrete.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

When the cone is removed, the slump may take several forms. For a slump to be acceptable the concrete simply subsides,
keeping more or less to the shape of the cone. In a shear slump the top portion of the concrete shears off and slips
sideways. In a collapse slump, the concrete collapses completely. Only a true slump is of any use in the test. If a shear or
collapse slump occurs, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated.

Adding extra water or superplasticizer to the mixture will result in higher durability, higher strength, and lower shrinkage.
However, superplasticizer increases the cost of production.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist stress without failure. In the case of concrete, its compressive
strength is the most important when thinking about structural design. Tests on compressive strength can be classified into
destructive and non-destructive. In a destructive test, cylindrical samples are cast in-situ and tested to failure to get the
results. In non-destructive ones, a rebound hammer is used to estimate the potential strength of the concrete.

Good quality concrete, when hardened, should achieve the specified strength required to carry loading and be durable
enough to resist deterioration. Appropriate testing methods are thus conducted in a laboratory or on-site to verify the
quality of concrete with that of immediate interest complies with the specifications in accordance with AS 1012.9:2014.

The compressive strength 𝜎 of a sample of cylindrical concrete is calculated as:

F
σ=
A

F is the maximum applied force indicated by the testing machine, in N. A is the area the force is applied to, in mm2, and σ
πd2
is in MPa (megapascals). For a cylinder A =
4

Before measuring the compressive strength, we make sure we have removed any surface water and grit from the surface
by wiping off with a damp cloth.

FAILURE OF CONCRETE SPECIMENS

A cylinder specimen of concrete (150 mm diameter

and 300 mm height), and a cube specimen of
concrete by size 150 × 150 × 150 mm are the standard
specimens to test the compressive strength. The
typical failure modes of test cubes and cylinders are
shown on the right.

AS3600-2009 says that concrete used in walls and

slabs should have a strength of at least 20 MPa.

Figure 8: Fracture modes (Source: "Failure of concrete specimens", 2020)

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 9: TITRATION

WHAT IS TITRATION?

Titration is a technique used to measure the concentration of an acid or alkali in a sample by comparing it to the
concentration of an alkali or acid in a standard solution (known concentration).

GLASS APPARATUS USED

For all these apparatus, see Lesson 1 for a more detailed description of each

1. Volumetric flask – makes up an accurate volume of a solution with an accurate and precise volume. It has one
calibration mark on its neck to indicate where the user should stop filling the flask.
2. Bulb pipette – delivers an accurate volume of a solution.
3. Burette – measures the volume of an added solution accurately.

The burette and pipette are cleaned and rinsed with the solution they will eventually contain. Rinsing with water or other
solutions may change the concentration of the solution that the burette and pipette will eventually contain.

TERMS NEEDED

• Acid – in the Bronsted-Lowry definition, this donates a proton in an aqueous solution. In the Arrhenius
definition, these form hydrogen (H+) ions in aqueous solutions. In the Lewis definition, these accept electron
pairs.

Acids are considered strong acids when they completely dissociate in water and donate all protons, with a
reaction of the form: HA → A− + H + . They are weak acids if only a fraction of the acid molecules dissociate in
this manner: HA ⇌ A− + H + .

• Amphoteric – In the Bronsted-Lowry definition, this can either donate or receive protons.
• Base – also known as alkali. in the Bronsted-Lowry definition, this accepts a proton in an aqueous solution. In
the Arrhenius definition, these form hydroxide (OH –) ions. In the Lewis definition, these donate electron pairs.

Bases are considered strong bases when all base molecules accept donated protons, with a reaction of the form:
B(OH) → B + + OH − . They are weak bases if only a fraction of the base molecules accept protons in this manner:
B + H2 O ⇌ BH + + OH − .
• Concordant titre – the volume of two or more titres similar in quantity (less than 0.10 mL difference)
• Dilution – reducing the concentration in a solution, usually by mixing it with more solvent.
• End-point – a physical change in the solution as determined by the indicator.
• Equivalence point – the theoretical completion of the reaction. This means the number of moles of base is equal
to that of acid. It is determined stoichiometrically. The equivalence point of a strong acid and a strong base is 7.
• Indicator – dye or mixture marking the end-point of the titration. Reference Table 9 shows various indicators.
• Meniscus – the curved top surface of a column of liquid. The meniscus can be either concave or convex.
o A concave meniscus occurs when molecules are more attracted to the container (i.e., stronger adhesive
forces) than to each other. Most liquids demonstrate this.
o A convex meniscus occurs when molecules are more attracted to each other (i.e., stronger cohesive
forces) than to each other. Mercury demonstrates this.
o A flat meniscus may be possible if the container is made of certain types of plastic or material that the
contained substance does not stick to.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

• pH and pOH – pH measures hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, and pOH measures hydroxide ion
concentration. The former is more commonly used, and is considered acidic if the pH < 7 at 25 °C [meaning has a
higher concentration of hydrogen ions] and basic if the pH > 7 at 25 °C [meaning has a higher concentration of
hydroxide ions].

pH = − log[H + ]
pOH = − log[𝑂𝐻 − ]
pH + pOH = 14
• Rough titration – used along with the first titration to get an approximation volume needed to reach the end-
point.
• Standard solution – a solution in which the concentration of solute in mol dm-3 or mol/L (called molar) is
known accurately.

CONSIDER THESE FIRST

READING A BURETTE
The burette reading tells you how much solution has been dispensed rather than how much it contains. Unlike other
volumetric glassware, the zero scale is written on top. Its measurement scale is at 0.10 intervals and readings are given to
an accuracy of 0.05 mL.

Make sure your eye is at the same level of the meniscus to avoid errors. For water and most liquids, the meniscus is
concave or like a U-shape. Read the center of the meniscus or the bottom of the U-shape.

The first and final readings should be recorded. The difference between these two readings is called the titer.

ROUGH TITRATION
A rough titration is the first titration and is used to get an approximation volume needed to reach the end point. This is
usually performed quickly, therefore it is unlikely for the value to be precise.

ACCURATE TITRATION
An accurate titration is carried out after the rough titration is performed. It is performed carefully until the concordant
titer is achieved.

Concordant titers refers to the volume of two or more titers similar in quantity.

SWIRL THE FLASK

This keeps a titration well mixed so the acid and alkali can rapidly contact each other. You may either swirl manually or
use mechanical stirring.

PROCEDURE

1. Prepare the unknown concentration solution by placing the solution of unknown concentration into a conical
flask using a calibrated pipette and adding a few drops of indicator into the unknown concentration solution.
2. Prepare the standard solution by filling a clean burette with the standard solution.
3. Record the volume of the solution in the burette (First reading).
4. Add the solution dropwise from the burette while continually swirling the flask when the end-point is close.
5. Record the volume of the solution in the burette (Final reading).
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

6. Repeat titration until concordant titres are achieved.

7. Calculate the average of the concordant titers.

INDICATOR USED

Thymolphthalein, with a chemical formula C28H30O4, is used as an acid-base indicator with two color stages in an
aqueous solution. At pH 0 to 9.3, the solution is colorless, at a pH of 9.3 to 10.5, it changes from light blue to blue.

Phenolphthalein, with a chemical formula C20H14O4, and a shorthand of HIn, is another acid-base indicator. It has four
color stages in an aqueous solution. At pH below 0, the solution is orange, at pH 0 to 8.2, the solution is colorless. At a pH
of 8.2 to 10.0, the solution changes from lilac purple to light pink to pink. At pH 12 to 13, it transitions to dark pink.

Thymol blue, with a chemical formula C27H30O5S, is another acid-base indicator. It has three color stages in an aqueous
solution. At pH 0 to 1.2, the solution is pink, then from pH 1.2 to pH 2.8 the color changes from red to orange to yellow. It
stays yellow until around pH 8, where it starts to change from lime (yellow-green) to green to teal (blue-green) to blue. At
pH 9.1, the solution becomes blue.

ANALYSIS

To find the concentration of a solution, we need these four:

• The balanced equation for the reaction.

• The volume of the solution with an unknown concentration in the conical flask.
• The volume of standard solution in the burette
• The concentration of the standard solution in the conical flask.

For example:

An acid-base titration is performed to find the concentration of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). 50.0 mL of NaOH is
neutralized by exactly 24.50 mL of hydrochloric acid (HCl) of concentration 0.250 mol/L.

Given the reaction: NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2 O, calculate the concentration in mol/L of the sodium hydroxide solution.

GIVEN: Reaction is NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2 O

Quantity NaOH HCl

Moles (mol) ? ?
Concentration (mol/L) ? 0.25
Volume (mL) 50 24.50
We remember these four quantities in stoichiometric calculations:

1. Mass or concentration of known

2. Moles of known
3. Moles of unknown
4. Mass or concentration of unknown

First, we find the number of moles of the substance with known concentration, in this case, HCl:

0.25 mol 1L
molHCl = VHCl × concentrationHCl = (24.5 mL) ( )( ) = 0.006125 mol
1L 1000 mL
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Next, we find the number of moles of the unknown substance by looking at the reaction: 1 mol of NaOH reacts with every
1 mol of HCl. The number of moles of HCl is therefore 0.006125 mol.

Next, we calculate the unknown concentration:

molsolute 0.006125 mol

concentrationNaOH = = = 0.1225 M
Vsolution 1L
50 mL ( )
1000 mL

If the sample was not diluted, we stop here. Else, we calculate the concentration of the base before dilution (10x) if the
sample was diluted.

concentration = concentration × dilution factor = 0.1225 × 10 = 1.225 mol/L = 1.225 M

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 10: EUTROPHICATION

EUTROPHICATION

Eutrophication is a sudden, dramatic increase in the growth factor for photosynthesis, such as sunlight, carbon dioxide,
or nutrients. Nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, exist in low levels in the aquatic ecosystem, therefore, they
become the limiting factor for algal and plant growth. The main cause of eutrophication is the leaching of fertilizers from
farm fields into the surrounding watershed, as well as sewage from industrial and urban areas.

Eutrophication may trigger

toxic algal blooms such as
red tides, brown tides, and
the growth of the
dinoflagellate Pfiesteria.
Pfiesteria can release a very
powerful toxin into the
water, causing bleeding
sores on fish, and even
resulting in fish kills.

Algal blooms are caused by

a sudden increase in
nutrients. Algae produce
oxygen. Initially the
ecosystem will be well
oxygenated and the fish will
thrive. However, the algae
will grow exponentially and
out-compete other plants for
light. Algae will then grow at
a faster rate than herbivores
can consume them, so
eventually the algae die and sink to the seabed uneaten. All the dead algae and plant detritus causes decomposing
bacteria to thrive.

Decomposing bacteria are mainly aerobic so, in such large amounts, they will consume oxygen faster than photosynthesis
and diffusion can replace it. Eventually, this series of events will lead to hypoxia, as decomposition of plant matter uses up
all the available oxygen in the surrounding habitat.

Hypoxia, or oxygen depletion, is an event that occurs in aquatic ecosystems as dissolved oxygen (DO) becomes reduced
to a point that is detrimental to the aquatic organisms living in the system (normally below 2 ppm). When the dissolved
oxygen is completely depleted in the water it is called anoxia.

THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE

A light microscope illuminates the specimen by focusing light through a lens onto the microscope slide. The light passes
through the specimen and into the objective lenses. Typically, a light microscope contains several objective lenses for
different magnifications. The objectives are fixed on a revolving nosepiece that sits above the sample on the stage, this
nosepiece can be turned to move a different objective into the light path. Each objective is marked with a colored ring
indicating the magnification. The size of the objective is also indicative of the magnification; the 5x objective is much
shorter than the 100x objective. The total magnification of the image results from multiplying the objective magnification
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

by the eyepiece magnification, which normally is 10x. Thus, if you observe a slide using the 4x objective, you are
magnifying the sample 40 times.

The light microscope consists of these parts:

1. Eyepiece – you look through this.

Magnification is typically 10x.
2. Interpupillary adjustment
3. Binocular tubes – equivalent to the
draw tube
4. Head – equivalent to the body tube
5. Stand – equivalent to the arm and
pillar
6. On/off switch – turns the light on or
off
7. Illumination intensity control – one
part of the equivalent to the mirror.
Controls the brightness of the light.
8. X-Y translation mechanism –
equivalent of the adjustment knobs,
only they adjust the stage instead of
the body tube.
9. Tungsten halogen lamp – light
source, replaces the mirror in a mirror
microscope
10. Base – supports the microscope
11. Collector lens – forms another part of the equivalent of the mirror. Concentrates the light.
12. Field diaphragm – forms yet another part of the equivalent of the mirror. Controls how much light is emitted.
13. Field lens – the light comes out here
14. Condenser – adjusts the light from below the stage
15. Mechanical stage- can simply be called the stage
16. Specimen holder- equivalent to the stage clip
17. Objective- there are typically three or four of these:
a. The scanner objective, typically marked by a red ring, with the lowest magnification typically at 4x;
b. The low-power objective, typically marked by a yellow ring, with a magnification typically at 10x;
c. The high-power objective, typically marked by a blue ring, with a magnification typically at 40x; and
d. The oil immersion objective, typically marked by a white ring and a black ring, with the highest
magnification typically at 100x.
18. Revolving nosepiece – allows you to switch the objective to be used.
19. Beam splitter – allows a microscope camera to be used.
20. Objective lens

To examine a specimen, the revolving nosepiece is turned to the lowest magnification before the microscope slide is placed
onto the microscope stage, as it is much easier to focus on the specimen at low magnification. The objectives are designed
to be parfocal, which means they stay in focus upon switching to the next magnification. The stage of the microscope can
be moved horizontally to explore different areas of the slide. (In the more typical microscopes you’d encounter, you would
move the slide manually and use the adjustment knobs to move the body tube up or down).
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

WATER QUALITY

Water quality can be characterized by three parameters: hydrology, physico-chemistry, and biology. Here, we present
methods to establish water quality based on the amount of dissolved oxygen and nitrogen level.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of gaseous oxygen dissolved in water. Oxygen diffuses into water from the
surrounding air, by aeration and as a by-product of photosynthesis. Dissolved oxygen levels are used as an indicator of
water quality.

Important values for dissolved oxygen are as follows

Dissolved Oxygen Characteristic

0-2 mg/L Not enough to support life
2-4 mg/L Only a few fish and aquatic insects can survive
4-7 mg/L Good for many aquatic animals
7-11 mg/L Very good for most stream fish

In the lab, we use a colorimetric method to measure the

dissolved oxygen levels in the water sample. The dissolved
oxygen test utilizes indigo carmine. In an acidic solution,
oxygen oxidizes the yellow-green leuco form of indigo
carmine to form a brightly colored blue dye. The resulting
blue color is proportional to the dissolve oxygen levels in
the water sample, as seen in the figure on the left.

NITROGEN
Nitrogen levels are a key indicator for water quality. Nitrogen is often the limiting factor for photoautotrophs. A
shift in the nitrogen cycle may have dramatic consequences for an ecosystem. In the environment, inorganic nitrogen
occurs in a range of oxidized states as nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), ammonium (NH4+) and dinitrogen, or nitrogen gas,
(N2). Plants and microorganisms are capable of converting inorganic nitrogen to organic nitrogen. The term organic
nitrogen refers to nitrogen compounds that originated from living material, for example: nitrogen in protein and urea.

Nitrite (NO2-) ions are rapidly oxidized to nitrate (NO 3-). Nitrate is the primary inorganic nutrient that drives primary
production in aquatic habitats. Therefore, nitrate analysis can help explain ecosystem dynamics. Natural sources of nitrate
include rocks, land drainage, and plant/animal debris. The level of nitrate may be inflated by overuse of nitrogen
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

fertilizers. The concentration of nitrate ions (NO 3-) is expressed in units of mg/L NO3—N. The unit NO3—N describes
nitrogen that is in the form of nitrate.

Various natural and man-made sources containing nitrogen can lead to the accumulation of nitrate (NO3-) in water. These
include:

• Agricultural runoff
• Urban runoff
• Animal feeds
• Municipal and industrial wastewater
• Automobile and industrial emissions
• Decomposition of plants and animal

Nitrate levels in water should not exceed 1 mg/L,

however human-derived nitrates can increase the
level to above 3 mg/L, therefore nitrate levels in water
are usually between 0.1 to 4 mg/L NO3—N.
Unpolluted water, however, should contain nitrate
levels below 1 mg/L.

The standard method for measuring nitrate levels in a

water sample is the automated cadmium reduction
method. In this method, the unstable nitrate ions are
reduced to nitrite in the presence of cadmium. Then,
the nitrite is diazotized with sulfanilamide and
coupled with N-(1-Naphthyl)-ethylenediamine
dihydrochloride to form a brightly colored azo dye.
The concentration of nitrogen in the water sample
correlates with the intensity of the color produced, as
seen in the figure on the right.

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

Spectrophotometry is a scientific method based on a substance's capability of absorbing light.

A spectrophotometer is an instrument that measures the intensity of light as transmitted or emitted by a particular
substance.

The spectrophotometer is used to determine the concentration of the molecules in the solution.

PRINCIPLE
The spectrophotometer is set only to measure at a certain wavelength; this wavelength can be adjusted so that the
optimal wavelength for measuring the specific compound is used. The spectrophotometer displays the so-called
absorbance (A), which is calculated as log(It/I0), where I0 is the intensity of the incident light, and It is the intensity of the
light that passes through the solution and is measured by the spectrophotometer. There is a linear relationship between
absorbance and concentration; this relationship is described by the Beer-Lambert Law as follows:

A = log (I0 / It) = ε • c • l

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

where c is the concentration of the solution, l is the length of the solution (through which the light has to pass) and ε is
the extinction coefficient, which is specific for a compound. [1]

A spectrophotometer (as can be seen on

the right) consists of the following

• a light source
• a wavelength selector
• a sample container (e.g., a
cuvette)
• radiation transducers
• a detector

For example, we will measure concentrations of NADH. NADH has an absorption maximum at 340 nm; therefore, the
spectrophotometer is set to measure at this wavelength. The extinction coefficient for NADH is calculated as follows: ε
=6220 M-1cm-1. The length of the solution is usually set to 1 cm.

There are certain limitations of the Beer-Lambert's Law that the investigator needs to take into consideration. Some of
these are related to technical issues; however, the law does have a real limitation, because it only applies to dilute
solutions. When the concentration of an absorbing species increases, so does the physicochemical interactions among the
molecules. Thus, at a given concentration, the molecules will begin to affect the charge distribution of the neighboring
molecules; when this occurs, the relationship between absorbance and concentration is no longer linear. As a rule of
thumb, one should stay below an absorption value of 1 when doing measurements.

Notably, absorbance is inversely proportional to what is known as transmittance; at an absorbance value of 1, 10% of
light is transmitted through the sample; at 2, 1% of light is transmitted, and so on in a logarithmic trend.

ANALYSIS
The general approach for a spectrophotometry analysis is as follows:

1. Choose wavelength
- According to the Beer-Lambert Law, for
each wavelength, absorbance is
proportional to concentration. The
wavelength of maximum absorbance is
selected for a given sample and use in the
absorbance measurements.

2. Plan the calibration graph

- To be able to determine the
concentration of the analytes in the
sample, a calibration curve is needed. The
calibration curve is prepared by measuring
several concentrations, which create a
linear graph such as the one on the right.
These measurements include
concentration levels that are both lower
and higher than the expected concentration of the analyte in the real sample.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

3. Determine the concentration of an unknown sample

- Once the calibration curve has been set up, the absorbance of any unknown solution can be measured at the
same wavelength and its concentration read from the graph or calculated from the slope.

It's important to prepare a reference blank each time a measurement is performed using the
spectrophotometer. The reference blank is a solution that contains no analyte of interest.

The blank calibrates the spectrophotometer and sets the absorption of the solvent to zero. This ensures the result
relates only to the analyte and not to any other compound in the solvent.

NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen is a crucial nutrient for the survival of all living organisms. It is the building block of proteins, DNA and
chlorophyll. Most nitrogen atoms exist as tightly bound pairs, forming dinitrogen gas (N 2), which represents 78% of the
atmosphere. Despite its abundance, only a few microorganisms can break the powerful triple bond of N 2, utilize it, and
convert it into a more accessible form (reactive nitrogen) such as ammonia (NH 3), nitrate (NO3-), or organic nitrogen.

The movement of nitrogen through the atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere in different forms is called the nitrogen
cycle.

NITROGEN FIXATION
Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting N2 into biologically available and reactive nitrogen. This compound is very
stable due to the triple bonds between the nitrogen atoms. Only some organisms known as nitrogen fixing organisms
can expend enough energy to break that triple bond. Some nitrogen fixing organisms are bacteria from the genus
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Rhizobium, which forms a symbiotic relationship with plants primarily from the legume family (beans, clovers, and peas);
Azotobacter, Clostridium, and cyanobacteria. The bacteria inhabit the plant’s root nodules and provide organic nitrogen in
exchange for carbohydrates.

Nitrogen fixation can also happen via lightning, cosmic radiation, and forest fires. Here, nitrogen gas combines with
oxygen to form the nitrogen oxides NO and NO 2-. These mix with rain and fall to the earth’s surface as nitric acid (HNO 2).

Humans have contributed more to the introduction of reactive nitrogen into the environment than natural processes. We
have done this by burning fossil fuels and overusing synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. Most man-derived nitrogen is the result
of the Haber-Bosch process.

NITRIFICATION
Nitrification is the conversion of ammonia to nitrite then nitrate. Most nitrification occurs aerobically and is carried out
exclusively by prokaryotes. Species of ammonia-oxidizing and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria are ubiquitous in aerobic
environments. They include Nitrosomonas, Nitrosospira, and Nitrosococcus, which oxidize ammonia to nitrite; and
Nitrobacter, Nitropinam, Nitrospira, and Nitrococcus, which oxidize nitrite to nitrate.

The first step of nitrification involves two different reactions. First, an enzyme called ammonia monooxygenase converts
ammonia to hydroxylamine. Second, an enzyme called hydroxylamine oxidoreductase converts hydroxylamine to nitrite.

Finally, the resulting nitrite is further oxidized by a nitrite oxidizer into nitrate.

Ammonia oxidation can also occurs anaerobically. This process is called anammox (anaerobic ammonia oxidation), and is
carried out by the bacteria such as Brocadia anammoxidans.

AMMONIFICATION
Ammonification is how bacteria and fungi convert nitrogenous waste in dead plants and animals into inorganic
ammonia. The resulting ammonia can be used by plants for growth.

DENITRIFICATION
Denitrification converts nitrate to nitrogen gas to return bio-available nitrogen to the atmosphere.

HABER-BOSCH PROCESS
German scientists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed a method to convert nonreactive atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonia. In this method, nitrogen from the air is directly combined with hydrogen under high pressures and
temperatures. The reaction is as follows (using iron as a catalyst to speed up the reaction):

Fe
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 , Δ𝐻° = −91.8 kJ/mol

Currently, the Haber-Bosch process is used to produce about 100 teragrams (Tg) or 100 billion kilograms or 1014 grams
reactive nitrogen (35% of total reactive nitrogen) per year worldwide, most of which is used to produce nitrogen fertilizers.

GLOBAL NITROGEN CYCLE

The inert nature of N2 limits the primary productivity, such as in plants, of many ecosystems. Increases in the human
population can alter the global nitrogen cycle, which greatly affects biodiversity, global warming, water quality and
human health.
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

LESSON 11: WASTEWATER TREATMENT

LAB SEWAGE PLANT

The lab sewage plant is an activated sludge plant with upstream

denitrification. It contains only the biological wastewater
treatment steps. The feedwater is led into the denitrification basin
and then passes through nitrification and secondary clarification
before ending in the drain water container. Internal recirculation
ensures that the nitrate built during nitrification is recycled back
to the denitrification basin. Sludge recirculation recycles the
active biomass from secondary clarification back to the
denitrification basin.

The components of the lab sewage plant as seen on the right are:

A. Denitrification basin
B. Nitrification basin
C. Secondary clarifier
D. Feedwater container
E. Drain water container
F. Feedwater inlet pump
G. Internal recirculation pump
H. Sludge recirculation pump

NITRIFICATION
During nitrification, ammonia is converted to nitrate in the presence of oxygen (oxidation) in a two-step process: First,
nirosomas break down ammonia (NH4+) into nitrite (NO2-), which is then further broken down to nitrate (NO3-) by
Nitrobacter.

Organism Reaction Equation

Nitrosomas NH4+ + 1.5O2 → NO2− + H2 O + 2H +
Nitrobacter NO2− + 0.5O2 → NO3−
Overall NH4 + 2O2 → NO3− + H2 O + 2H +
+

DENITRIFICATION
During denitrification, nitrate (NO3-) is converted into nitrogen (N2) in the absence of oxygen by heterotrophic bacteria
such as Pseudomonas. They use organic matter as an electron donor for this reduction reaction.

The reaction equation for the involvement of Pseudomonas bacteria is:

5C6 H12 O6 + 24NO3− → 24HCO3− + 6CO2 + 18H2 O + 12N2

MICROPOLLUTANTS

Micropollutants are anthropogenic (originating from human activity) trace substances found in surface waters. They
include metallic and organic compounds, that occur in low concentrations in the environment (<0.1 μg/L - 1 μg/L).
Because they are not completely degradable, they are very common. In higher concentrations, micropollutants can be
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

toxic to humans. However, even concentrations 10 4 times below the human threshold can have negative effects on aquatic
organisms, soil bacteria, and ecosystems.

Common micropollutants are:

• Drug residues (Penicillin, X-ray contrast medium, Diclofenac)

• Hormones (Bisphenols, Phthalates, Estriol)
• Insecticides and Herbicides (Glyphosate [Monsanto’s Roundup], Mecoprop, Diuron)
• Organic Fluor compounds (from outdoor equipment, nonstick coatings)

GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY – MASS SPECTROMETRY (GC-MS)

GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
Gas chromatography is used to separate the analytes to be investigated. The chromatography column consists of a 15 to
100 m long glass capillary which is flooded with an inert gas such as helium. The evaporated analytes are injected into the
stream of gas and travel through the column based on their physical and chemical properties. This way, very complex
analyte mixtures can be separated into their components.

MASS SPECTROMETRY
Mass spectrometry is used to identify and quantify the separated substances. In the mass spectrometer, the components
are ionized by electron impact ionization (EI) which leads to their fragmentation. From the mass numbers of the mol peak
and of characteristic fragments, and from the isotope pattern (if present), the chemical formula can be determined. A
schematic representation of the GC-MS technique is shown below.

SAMPLE PREPARATION
Micropollutant enrichment is done as follows:

1. To be concentrated, the sample is loaded onto a pre-conditioned SPE column

2. Next, the column is washed with water and dried under a stream of nitrogen
3. The analytes are then eluted with acetone
4. The acetone is evaporated in the rotary evaporator
5. Finally, the analytes are dissolved in GC-MS buffer
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCE TABLES

REFERENCE TABLE 1: PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

LEGEND:
A. Color of Table Cell in Symbol
Color Meaning Color Meaning
Pink Alkali Metals Orange Main Group Metals
Purple Alkaline Earth Metals Brown Metalloids
Blue Transition Metals Yellow Nonmetals
Cyan Group 12 Metals Red Noble Gases
Green Lanthanoids Black Unknown
Lime Actinoids
B. Color of Text in Element Name
Color State Color State
Black Solid Red Gas
Blue Liquid Gray Unknown
C. Color of Text in Main Isotopes
Color State Color State
Black Stable Purple More than 7×108 years
Violet 1×106 to 1.03×108 years Indigo 1×105 to 1×106 years
Blue 1×104 to 1×105 years Teal 1000 to 10k years
Green 100 to 1000 years Lime 10 to 100 years
Chartreuse 1 to 10 years Yellow 100 to 366 days
Orange 50 to 100 days Red Orange 30 to 50 days
Red 14 to 30 days Pink 7 to 14 days
Brown 1 to 7 days Gray Less than 1 day
D. Formatting of Text in Main Isotopes
Bold – most abundant or commonly used isotope
Italic – synthetic isotopes
Table:

Z Sym. Name Period Group Mass Common Oxidation Main Electron

No. States Isotopes Configuration
1 H Hydrogen 1 IA/1 1 +1, -1 1H, 2H, 3H 1s1
2 He Helium 1 VIIIA/18 4 0 3He, 4He 1s2
3 Li Lithium 2 IA/1 7 +1 6Li, 7Li 1s2 2s1
4 Be Beryllium 2 IIA/2 9 +2 7Be, 9Be, 10Be 1s2 2s2
5 B Boron 2 IIIA/13 11 +3 10B, 11B 1s2 2s2 2p1
6 C Carbon 2 IVA/14 12 -4, -3, -2, -1, +1, +2, +3, +4 11C, 12C, 13C, 1s2 2s2 2p2
14C

7 N Nitrogen 2 VA/15 14 -3, -2, -1, +1, +2 +3, +4, +5 13N, 14N, 15N 1s2 2s2 2p3
8 O Oxygen 2 VIA/16 16 -2 16O, 17O, 18O 1s2 2s2 2p4
9 F Fluorine 2 VIIA/17 19 -1 18F, 19F 1s2 2s2 2p5
10 Ne Neon 2 VIIIA/18 20 0 20Ne, 21Ne, 1s2 2s2 2p6
22Ne

11 Na Sodium 3 IA/1 23 +1 22Na, 23Na, [Ne] 3s1

24Na

12 Mg Magnesium 3 IIA/2 24 +2 24Mg, 25Mg, [Ne] 3s2

26Mg

13 Al Aluminum 3 IIIA/13 27 +3 26Al, 27Al [Ne] 3s2 3p1

14 Si Silicon 3 IVA/14 28 -4, +4 28Si, 29Si, 30Si, [Ne] 3s2 3p2
31Si, 32Si

15 P Phosphorus 3 VA/15 31 -3, +3, +5 31P, 32P, 33P [Ne] 3s2 3p3
16 S Sulfur 3 VIA/16 32 -2, +2, +4, +6 32S, 33S, 34S, [Ne] 3s2 3p4
35S, 36S
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Z Sym. Name Period Group Mass Common Oxidation Main Electron

No. States Isotopes Configuration
17 Cl Chlorine 3 VIIA/17 35 -1, +1, +3, +5, +7 34mCl, 35Cl, [Ne] 3s2 3p5
36Cl, 37Cl

18 Ar Argon 3 VIIIA/18 40 0 36Ar, 37Ar, [Ne] 3s2 3p6

38Ar, 39Ar,
40Ar, 41Ar,
42Ar

19 K Potassium 4 IA/1 39 +1 39K, 40K, 41K [Ar] 4s1

20 Ca Calcium 4 IIA/2 40 +2 40Ca, 41Ca, [Ar] 4s2
42Ca, 43Ca,
44Ca, 45Ca,
46Ca, 47Ca,
48Ca

21 Sc Scandium 4 IIIB/3 45 +3 44m2Sc, 45Sc, [Ar] 4s2 3d1

46Sc, 47Sc, 48Sc

22 Ti Titanium 4 IVB/4 48 +2, +3, +4 44Ti, 46Ti, 47Ti, [Ar] 4s2 3d2
48Ti, 49Ti, 50Ti

23 V Vanadium 4 VB/5 51 +2, +3, +4, +5 48V, 49V, 50V, [Ar] 4s2 3d3
51V

24 Cr Chromium 4 VIB/6 52 +2, +3, +6 50Cr, 51Cr, [Ar] 4s1 3d5

52Cr, 53Cr,
54Cr

25 Mn Manganese 4 VIIB/7 55 +2, +3, +4, +6, +7 52Mn, 53Mn, [Ar] 4s2 3d5
54Mn, 55Mn

26 Fe Iron 4 VIIIB/8 56 +2, +3, +6 54Fe, 55Fe, [Ar] 4s2 3d6

56Fe, 57Fe,
58Fe, 59Fe, 60Fe

27 Co Cobalt 4 VIIIB/9 59 +2, +3 56Co, 57Co, [Ar] 4s2 3d7

58Co, 59Co,
60Co

28 Ni Nickel 4 VIIIB/10 59 +2, +3 58Ni, 59Ni, [Ar] 4s2 3d8 OR

60Ni, 61Ni, [Ar] 4s1 3d9
62Ni, 63Ni, 64Ni

29 Cu Copper 4 IB/11 64 +1, +2 63Cu, 64Cu, [Ar] 4s1 3d10

65Cu, 67Cu

30 Zn Zinc 4 IIB/12 65 +2 64Zn, 65Zn, [Ar] 4s2 3d10

66Zn, 67Zn,
68Zn, 69Zn,
69mZn, 70Zn,
71Zn, 71mZn,
72Zn

31 Ga Gallium 4 IIIA/13 70 +3 66Ga, 67Ga, [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p1

68Ga, 69Ga,
70Ga, 71Ga,
72Ga, 73Ga

32 Ge Germanium 4 IVA/14 73 -4, +2, +4 68Ge, 70Ge, [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p2
71Ge, 72Ge,
73Ge, 74Ge,
76Ge

33 As Arsenic 4 VA/15 75 -3, +3, +5 73As, 74As, [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p3
75As

34 Se Selenium 4 VIA/16 79 -2, +2, +4, +6 72Se, 74Se, [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p4
75Se, 76Se,
77Se, 78Se,
79Se, 80Se,
82Se

35 Br Bromine 4 VIIA/17 80 -1, +1, +3, +5 79Br, 81Br [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5
36 Kr Krypton 4 VIIIA/18 84 0, +2 78Kr, 79Kr, [Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p6
80Kr, 81Kr,
82Kr, 83Kr,
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Z Sym. Name Period Group Mass Common Oxidation Main Electron

No. States Isotopes Configuration
84Kr, 85Kr,
86Kr

37 Rb Rubidium 5 IA/1 85 +1 83Rb, 84Rb, [Kr] 5s1

85Rb, 86Rb,
87Rb

38 Sr Strontium 5 IIA/2 88 +2 82Sr, 83Sr, 84Sr, [Kr] 5s2

85Sr, 86Sr, 87Sr,
88Sr, 89Sr, 90Sr

39 Y Yttrium 5 IIIB/3 89 +3 87Y, 88Y, 89Y, [Kr] 5s2 4d1

90Y, 91Y

40 Zr Zirconium 5 IVB/4 91 +4 88Zr, 89Zr, [Kr] 5s2 4d2

90Zr, 91Zr,
92Zr, 93Zr,
94Zr, 96Zr

41 Nb Niobium 5 VB/5 93 +3, +5 90Nb, 91Nb, [Kr] 5s1 4d4

91mNb, 92Nb,
92m1Nb, 93Nb,
93mNb, 94Nb,
95Nb, 95mNb,
96Nb

42 Mo Molybdenum 5 VIB/6 96 +4, +6 92Mo, 93Mo, [Kr] 5s1 4d5

94Mo, 95Mo,
96Mo, 97Mo,
98Mo, 99Mo,
100Mo

43 Tc Technetium 5 VIIB/7 [97] +4, +5, +7 95mTc, 96Tc, [Kr] 5s2 4d5
97Tc, 97mTc,
98Tc, 99Tc,
99mTc

44 Ru Ruthenium 5 VIIIB/8 101 +2, +3, +4 96Ru, 97Ru, [Kr] 5s1 4d7
98Ru, 99Ru,
100Ru, 101Ru,
102Ru, 103Ru,
104Ru, 106Ru

45 Rh Rhodium 5 VIIIB/9 103 +3 99Rh, 101Rh, [Kr] 5s1 4d8

101mRh, 102Rh,
102mRh, 103Rh,
105Rh

46 Pa Palladium 5 VIIIB/10 106 0, +2, +4 100Pd, 102Pd, [Kr] 4d10

103Pd, 104Pd,
105Pd, 106Pd,
107Pd, 108Pd,
110Pd

47 Ag Silver 5 IB/11 108 +1 105Ag, 106mAg, [Kr] 5s1 4d10

107Ag, 108mAg,
109Ag, 110mAg,
111Ag

48 Cd Cadmium 5 IIB/12 112 +2 106Cd, 107Cd, [Kr] 5s2 4d10

108Cd, 109Cd,
110Cd, 111Cd,
112Cd, 113Cd,
113mCd, 114Cd,
115Cd, 116Cd

49 In Indium 5 IIIA/13 115 +3 111In, 113In, [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p1

115In

50 Sn Tin 5 IVA/14 119 -4, +2, +4 112Sn, 114Sn, [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p2
115Sn, 116Sn,
117Sn, 118Sn,
119Sn, 120Sn,
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Z Sym. Name Period Group Mass Common Oxidation Main Electron

No. States Isotopes Configuration
122Sn, 124Sn,
126Sn

51 Sb Antimony 5 VA/15 122 -3, +3, +5 121Sb, 123Sb, [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p3
125Sb

52 Te Tellurium 5 VIA/16 128 -2, +2, +4, +6 120Te, 121Te, [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p4
122Te, 123Te,
124Te, 125Te,
126Te, 127Te,
128Te, 129Te,
130Te

53 I Iodine 5 VIIA/17 127 -1, +1, +3, +5, +7 123I, 124I, 125I, [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p5
127I, 129I, 131I,
135I

54 Xe Xenon 5 VIIIA/18 131 0, +2, +4, +6 124Xe, 125Xe, [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p6
126Xe, 127Xe,
128Xe, 129Xe,
130Xe, 131Xe,
132Xe, 133Xe,
134Xe, 135Xe,
136Xe

55 Cs Cesium 6 IA/1 133 +1 131Cs, 133Cs, [Xe] 6s1

134Cs, 135Cs,
137Cs

56 Ba Barium 6 IIA/2 137 +2 130Ba, 132Ba, [Xe] 6s2

133Ba, 134Ba,
135Ba, 136Ba,
137Ba, 138Ba

57 La Lanthanum 6 IIIB/3 139 +3 137La, 138La, [Xe] 6s2 5d1

139La

58 Ce Cerium 6 IIIB/3 140 +3, +4 134Ce, 136Ce, [Xe] 6s2 4f1 5d1
138Ce, 139Ce,
140Ce, 141Ce,
142Ce, 143Ce,
144Ce

59 Pr Praseodymium 6 IIIB/3 141 +3 141Pr, 142Pr, [Xe] 6s2 4f3

143Pr

60 Nd Neodymium 6 IIIB/3 144 +3 142Nd, 143Nd, [Xe] 6s2 4f4

144Nd, 145Nd,
146Nd, 148Nd,
150Nd

61 Pm Promethium 6 IIIB/3 145 +3 145Pm, 146Pm, [Xe] 6s2 4f5

147Pm

62 Sm Samarium 6 IIIB/3 150 +2, +3 144Sm, 145Sm, [Xe] 6s2 4f6

146Sm, 147Sm,
148Sm, 149Sm,
150Sm, 151Sm,
152Sm, 153Sm,
154Sm

63 Eu Europium 6 IIIB/3 152 +2, +3 150Eu, 151Eu, [Xe] 6s2 4f7

152Eu, 153Eu,
154Eu, 155Eu

64 Gd Gadolinium 6 IIIB/3 157 +3 148Gd, 150Gd, [Xe] 6s2 4f7 5d1

152Gd, 153Gd,
154Gd, 155Gd,
156Gd, 157Gd,
158Gd, 160Gd

65 Tb Terbium 6 IIIB/3 159 +3 157Tb, 158Tb, [Xe] 6s2 4f9

159Tb

66 Dy Dysprosium 6 IIIB/3 163 +3 154Dy, 156Dy, [Xe] 6s2 4f10

158Dy, 160Dy,
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Z Sym. Name Period Group Mass Common Oxidation Main Electron

No. States Isotopes Configuration
161Dy, 162Dy,
163Dy, 164Dy

67 Ho Holmium 6 IIIB/3 165 +3 163Ho, 164Ho, [Xe] 6s2 4f11

165Ho, 166Ho,
167Ho

68 Er Erbium 6 IIIB/3 167 +3 160Er, 162Er, [Xe] 6s2 4f12

164Er, 165Er,
166Er, 167Er,
168Er, 169Er,
170Er, 171Er,
172Er

69 Tm Thulium 6 IIIB/3 169 +3 167Tm, 168Tm, [Xe] 6s2 4f13

169Tm, 170Tm,
171Tm

70 Yb Ytterbium 6 IIIB/3 173 +2, +3 166Yb, 168Yb, [Xe] 6s2 4f14

169Yb, 170Yb,
171Yb, 172Yb,
173Yb, 174Yb,
175Yb, 176Yb,
177Yb

71 Lu Lutetium 6 IIIB/3 175 +3 173Lu, 174Lu, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d1

175Lu, 176Lu

72 Hf Hafnium 6 IVB/4 178 +4 172Hf, 174Hf, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d2

176Hf, 177Hf,
178Hf, 178m2Hf,
179Hf, 180Hf,
182Hf

73 Ta Tantalum 6 VB/5 181 +5 177Ta, 178Ta, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d3

179Ta, 180Ta,
180mTa, 181Ta,
182Ta, 183Ta

74 W Tungsten 6 VIB/6 184 +4, +6 180W, 181W, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d4
182W, 183W,
184W, 185W,
186W

75 Re Rhenium 6 VIIB/7 186 +1, +4, +6, +7 185Re, 187Re [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d5
76 Os Osmium 6 VIIIB/8 190 +3, +4 184Os, 185Os, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d6
186Os, 187Os,
188Os, 189Os,
190Os, 191Os,
192Os, 193Os,
194Os

77 Ir Iridium 6 VIIIB/9 192 +3, +4 188Ir, 189Ir, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d7
190Ir, 191Ir,
192Ir, 192m2Ir,
193Ir, 193mIr,
194Ir, 194m2Ir

78 Pt Platinum 6 VIIIB/10 195 +2, +3, +4 190Pt, 192Pt, [Xe] 6s1 4f14 5d9
193Pt, 194Pt,
195Pt, 196Pt,
198Pt

79 Au Gold 6 IB/11 197 +1, +3 195Au, 196Au, [Xe] 6s1 4f14 5d10
197Au, 198Au,
199Au

80 Hg Mercury 6 IIB/12 201 +1, +2 194Hg, 195Hg, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10
196Hg, 197Hg,
198Hg, 199Hg,
200Hg, 201Hg,
202Hg, 203Hg,
204Hg
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Z Sym. Name Period Group Mass Common Oxidation Main Electron

No. States Isotopes Configuration
81 Tl Thallium 6 IIIA/13 204 +1, +3 203Tl, 204Tl, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p1
205Tl

82 Pb Lead 6 IVA/14 207 +2, +4 202Pb, 204Pb, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p2
205Pb, 206Pb,
207Pb, 208Pb,
209Pb, 210Pb,
211Pb, 212Pb,
214Pb

83 Bi Bismuth 6 VA/15 209 +3, +5 207Bi, 208Bi, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p3
209Bi, 210Bi,
210mBi

84 Po Polonium 6 VIA/16 209 -2, +2, +4 208Po, 209Po, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p4
210Po

85 At Astatine 6 VIIA/17 210 -1, +1 209At, 210At, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p5
211At

86 Rn Radon 6 VIIIA/18 222 0, +2 +4, +8 210Rn, 211Rn, [Xe] 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6
222Rn, 224Rn

87 Fr Francium 7 IA/1 223 +1 212Fr, 221Fr, [Rn] 7s1

222Fr, 223Fr

88 Ra Radium 7 IIA/2 226 +2 223Ra, 224Ra, [Rn] 7s2

225Ra, 226Ra,
228Ra

89 Ac Actinium 7 IIIB/3 227 +3 225Ac, 226Ac, [Rn] 7s2 6d1

227Ac, 228Ac

90 Th Thorium 7 IIIB/3 232 +4 227Th, 228Th, [Rn] 7s2 6d2

229Th, 230Th,
231Th, 232Th,
234Th

91 Pa Protactinium 7 IIIB/3 231 +4, +5 229Pa, 230Pa, [Rn] 7s2 5f2 6d1
231Pa, 232Pa,
233Pa, 234Pa,
234mPa

92 U Uranium 7 IIIB/3 238 +3, +4, +5, +6 232U, 233U, [Rn] 7s2 5f3 6d1
234U, 235U,
236U, 238U

93 Np Neptunium 7 IIIB/3 237 +3, +4, +5, +6 235Np, 236Np, [Rn] 7s2 5f4 6d1
237Np, 239Np

94 Pu Plutonium 7 IIIB/3 244 +3, +4, +5, +6 238Pu, 239Pu, [Rn] 7s2 5f6
240Pu, 241Pu,
242Pu, 244Pu

95 Am Americium 7 IIIB/3 243 +3, +4, +5, +6 241Am, [Rn] 7s2 5f7
242m1Am,
243Am

96 Cm Curium 7 IIIB/3 247 +3 242Cm, 243Cm, [Rn] 7s2 5f7 6d1

244Cm, 245Cm,
246Cm, 247Cm,
248Cm, 250Cm

97 Bk Berkelium 7 IIIB/3 247 +3, +4 245Bk, 246Bk, [Rn] 7s2 5f9

247Bk, 248Bk,
249Bk
98 Cf Californium 7 IIIB/3 251 +3 248Cf, 249Cf, [Rn] 7s2 5f10
250Cf, 251Cf,
252Cf, 253Cf,
254Cf

99 Es Einsteinium 7 IIIB/3 252 +3 252Es, 253Es, [Rn] 7s2 5f11

254Es, 255Es

100 Fm Fermium 7 IIIB/3 257 +3 252Fm, 253Fm, [Rn] 7s2 5f12

255Fm, 257Fm
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Z Sym. Name Period Group Mass Common Oxidation Main Electron

No. States Isotopes Configuration
101 Md Mendelevium 7 IIIB/3 258 +2, +3 256Md, 257Md, [Rn] 7s2 5f13
258Md, 259Md,
260Md

102 No Nobelium 7 IIIB/3 259 +2, +3 253No, 254No, [Rn] 7s2 5f14
255No, 257No,
259No
103 Lr Lawrencium 7 IIIB/3 266 +3 254Lr, 255Lr, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 7p1
256Lr, 259Lr,
260Lr, 261Lr,
262Lr, 266Lr

104 Rf Rutherfordium 7 IVB/4 267 +4 261Rf, 263Rf, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d2
265Rf, 266Rf,
267Rf

105 Db Dubnium 7 VB/5 268 +5 262Db, 263Db, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d3
266Db, 267Db,
268Db, 270Db

106 Sg Seaborgium 7 VIB/6 269 +6 265Sg, 265mSg, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d4
267Sg, 269Sg,
271Sg

107 Bh Bohrium 7 VIIB/7 270 +7 267Bh, 270Bh, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d5
271Bh, 272Bh,
274Bh, 278Bh?

108 Hs Hassium 7 VIIIB/8 270 +8 269Hs, 270Hs, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d6
277mHs?

109 Mt Meitnerium 7 VIIIB/9 278 ? 274Mt, 276Mt, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d7?
278Mt, 282Mt?

110 Ds Darmstadtium 7 VIIIB/10 281 ? 269Ds, 281Ds [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d8?
111 Rg Roentgenium 7 IB/11 282 ? 279Rg, 280Rg, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d9?
281Rg, 282Rg,
283Rg? 286Rg?

112 Cn Copernicium 7 IIB/12 285 +2 283Cn, 285Cn, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d10?
286Cn

113 Nh Nihonium 7 IIIA/13 286 ? 278Nh, 282Nh, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p1?
283Nh, 284Nh,
285Nh, 286Nh,
287Nh? 290Nh?

114 Fl Flerovium 7 IVA/14 289 ? 284Fl, 285Fl, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p2?
286Fl, 287Fl,
288Fl, 289Fl,
290Fl

115 Mc Moscovium 7 VA/15 290 ? 287Mc, 288Mc, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p3?
289Mc, 290Mc

116 Lv Livermorium 7 VIA/16 293 ? 290Lv, 291Lv, [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p4?
292Lv, 293Lv,
294Lv

117 Ts Tennessine 7 VIIA/17 294 ? 293Ts, 294Ts [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p5?
118 Og Oganesson 7 VIIIA/18 294 ? 294Og, 295Og [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6?
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCE TABLE 2: SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITIES OF COMMON SUBSTANCES AT 25 °C AND 1 BAR

2A: COMMON SUBSTANCES
Substance Symbol (State) Specific Heat (J/g °C)
Helium He (𝑔) 5.193
Water H2 O (ℓ) 4.184
Ethanol C2 H6 O (ℓ) 2.376
Ice H2 O (𝑠) 2.093 (at -10 °C),
Water Vapor H2 O (𝑔) 1.864 (at 26.85 °C), 2.028 (at 100 °C)
Nitrogen N2 (𝑔) 1.040
Air 1.007
Oxygen O2 (𝑔) 0.918
Aluminum Al (𝑠) 0.897
Carbon Dioxide CO2 (𝑔) 0.853
Silicon Si (𝑠) 0.712
Argon Ar (𝑔) 0.522
Iron Fe (𝑠) 0.449
Copper Cu (𝑠) 0.385
Lead Pb (𝑠) 0.130
Gold Au (𝑠) 0.129

2B: FIRST 94 ELEMENTS

Substance Symbol (State) Specific Heat (J/g °C)
Hydrogen H2 (𝑔) 14.304
Helium He (𝑔) 5.193
Lithium Li (𝑠) 3.582
Beryllium Be (𝑠) 1.825
Boron (Rhombic) B (𝑠) 1.026
Carbon (Graphite) C (𝑠) 0.709
Nitrogen N2 (𝑔) 1.040
Oxygen O2 (𝑔) 0.918
Fluorine F2 (𝑔) 0.824
Neon Ne (𝑔) 1.030
Sodium Na (𝑠) 1.228
Magnesium Mg (𝑠) 1.023
Aluminum Al (𝑠) 0.897
Silicon Si (𝑠) 0.705
Phosphorus (White) P4 (𝑠) 0.769
Sulfur (Rhombic) S8 (𝑠) 0.710
Chlorine Cl2 (𝑔) 0.479
Argon Ar (𝑔) 0.520
Potassium K (𝑠) 0.757
Calcium Ca (𝑠) 0.647
Scandium Sc (𝑠) 0.568
Titanium Ti (𝑠) 0.523
Vanadium V (𝑠) 0.489
Chromium Cr (𝑠) 0.449
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Manganese Mn (𝑠) 0.479

Iron Fe (𝑠) 0.449
Cobalt Co (𝑠) 0.421
Nickel Ni (𝑠) 0.444
Copper Cu (𝑠) 0.385
Zinc Zn (𝑠) 0.388
Gallium Ga (𝑠) 0.371
Germanium Ge (𝑠) 0.320
Arsenic As (𝑠) 0.329
Selenium Se (𝑠) 0.321
Bromine Br2 (ℓ) 0.473
Krypton Kr (𝑔) 0.248
Rubidium Rb (𝑠) 0.363
Strontium Sr (𝑠) 0.301
Yttrium Y (𝑠) 0.298
Zirconium Zr (𝑠) 0.278
Niobium Nb (𝑠) 0.265
Molybdenum Mo (𝑠) 0.251
Technetium Tc (𝑠) 0.250
Ruthenium Ru (𝑠) 0.238
Rhodium Rh (𝑠) 0.243
Palladium Pd (𝑠) 0.246
Silver Ag (𝑠) 0.235
Cadmium Cd (𝑠) 0.232
Indium In (𝑠) 0.233
Tin Sn (𝑠) 0.228 (white), 0.217 (gray)
Antimony Sb (𝑠) 0.207
Tellurium Te (𝑠) 0.202
Iodine I2 (𝑠) 0.145
Xenon Xe (𝑔) 0.158
Cesium Cs (𝑠) 0.242
Barium Ba (𝑠) 0.204
Lanthanum La (𝑠) 0.195
Cerium Ce (𝑠) 0.192
Praseodymium Pr (𝑠) 0.193
Neodymium Nd (𝑠) 0.190
Promethium Pm (𝑠) 0.188
Samarium Sm (𝑠) 0.197
Europium Eu (𝑠) 0.182
Gadolinium Gd (𝑠) 0.236
Terbium Tb (𝑠) 0.182
Dysprosium Dy (𝑠) 0.170
Holmium Ho (𝑠) 0.165
Erbium Er (𝑠) 0.168
Thulium Tm (𝑠) 0.160
Ytterbium Yb (𝑠) 0.155
Lutetium Lu (𝑠) 0.154
Hafnium Hf (𝑠) 0.144
Tantalum Ta (𝑠) 0.140
Tungsten W (𝑠) 0.132
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Rhenium Re (𝑠) 0.137

Osmium Os (𝑠) 0.130
Iridium Ir (𝑠) 0.131
Platinum Pt (𝑠) 0.133
Gold Au (𝑠) 0.129
Mercury Hg (ℓ) 0.140
Thallium Tl (𝑠) 0.129
Lead Pb (𝑠) 0.130
Bismuth Bi (𝑠) 0.122
Polonium Po (𝑠) 0.130
Astatine At (𝑠) N/A
Radon Rn (𝑔) 0.094
Francium Fr (𝑠) N/A
Radium Ra (𝑠) 0.092
Actinium Ac (𝑠) 0.120
Thorium Th (𝑠) 0.129
Protactinium Pa (𝑠) 0.099
Uranium U (𝑠) 0.116
Neptunium Np (𝑠) 0.124
Plutonium Pu (𝑠) 0.149
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCE TABLE 3: STANDARD ENTHALPIES OF FORMATION AT 25°C (IN KJ/MOL) OF

COMPOUNDS AT 1 ATM. AQUEOUS IONS AT 1 M (MOLARITY OR MOLAR CONCENTRATION)
Compound Name Chemical Formula Standard Enthalpy of Formation
(kJ/mol)
Silver bromide AgBr(s) –100.4
Silver chloride AgCl(s) –127.1
Silver iodide AgI(s) –61.8
Silver nitrate AgNO3(s) –124.4
Silver oxide Ag 2 O(s) –31.0
Aluminum oxide Al2 O3(s) –1675.7
Barium chloride BaCl2(s) –858.6
Barium carbonate BaCO3(s) –1216.3
Barium oxide BaO(s) –553.5
Barium sulfate BaSO4(s) –1473.2
Carbon tetrachloride CCl4(ℓ) –135.4
Chloroform CHCl3(ℓ) –134.5
Methane CH4 –74.8
Acetylene/Ethyne C2 H2(g) +226.7
Ethene C2 H4(g) +52.3
Ethane C2 H6 (g) –84.7
Propane C3 H8(g) –103.8
Methanol/Methyl Alcohol CH3 OH(ℓ) –238.7
Ethanol/Ethyl Alcohol C2 H5 OH(ℓ) –277.7
Carbon monoxide CO(g) –110.5
Carbon dioxide CO2(g) –393.5
Calcium chloride CaCl2(s) –795.8
Calcium carbonate CaCO3(s) –1206.9
Calcium oxide CaO(s) –635.1
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2(s) –986.1
Calcium sulfate CaSO4(s) –1434.1
Cadmium chloride CdCl2(s) –391.5
Cadmium oxide CdO(s) –258.2
Chromium (III) oxide Cr2 O3(s) –1139.7
Copper (II) oxide CuO(s) –157.3
Copper (I) oxide Cu2 O(s) –168.6
Copper (II) sulfide CuS(s) –53.1
Copper (I) sulfide Cu2 S(s) –79.5
Copper (II) sulfate CuSO4(s) –771.4
Iron (III) hydroxide/Hematite Fe(OH)3(s) –823.0
Iron (III) oxide Fe2 O3(s) –824.2
Iron (II, III) oxide/Magnetite Fe3 O4(s) –1118.4
Hydrogen bromide gas HBr(g) –36.4
Hydrogen chloride gas HCl(g) –92.3
Hydrogen fluoride gas HF(g) –271.1
Hydrogen iodide gas HI(g) +26.5
Nitric acid HNO3(ℓ) –174.1
Water vapor/Steam H2 O(g) –241.8
Water H2 O(ℓ) –285.8
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Hydrogen peroxide H2 O2(ℓ) –187.8

Hydrogen sulfide H2 S(g) –20.6
Sulfuric acid H2 SO4(ℓ) –814.0
Mercury (II) oxide HgO(s) –90.8
Potassium bromide KBr(s) –393.8
Potassium chloride KCl(s) –436.7
Potassium chlorate KClO3(s) –397.7
Potassium perchlorate KClO4(s) –432.8
Potassium nitrate KNO3(s) –494.6
Magnesium chloride MgCl2(s) –641.3
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3(s) –1095.8
Magnesium oxide MgO(s) –601.7
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2(s) –924.5
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4(s) –1284.9
Manganese (II) oxide MnO(s) –385.2
Manganese (IV) oxide/Manganese dioxide MnO2(s) –520.0
Ammonia NH3(g) –46.1
Hydrazine N2 H4(ℓ) +50.6
Ammonium chloride NH4 Cl(s) –314.4
Ammonium nitrate NH4 NO3(s) –365.6
Nitrogen oxide NO(g) +90.2
Nitrogen dioxide NO2(g) +33.2
Dinitrogen tetroxide N2 O4(g) +9.2
Sodium chloride NaCl(s) –411.2
Sodium fluoride NaF(s) –573.6
Sodium hydroxide NaOH(s) –425.6
Nickel (II) oxide NiO(s) –239.7
Lead (II) bromide PbBr2(s) –278.7
Lead (II) chloride PbCl2(s) –359.4
Lead (II) oxide PbO(s) –219.0
Lead (IV) oxide/Lead dioxide PbO2(s) –277.4
Phosphorus trichloride/Phosphorus (III) chloride PCl3(s) –287.0
Phosphorus pentachloride/Phosphorus (V) chloride PCl5(s) –374.9
Silicon dioxide/Sand SiO2(s) –910.9
Tin (IV) oxide/Tin dioxide SnO2(s) –580.7
Sulfur dioxide SO2(g) –296.8
Sulfur trioxide SO3(g) –395.7
Zinc iodide ZnI2(s) –208.0
Zinc oxide ZnO(s) –348.3
Zinc sulfide ZnS(s) –206.0
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCE TABLE 4: COMMON IONS

CATION NAME ANION NAME

H+ Hydrogen H- Hydride
Li+ Lithium F- Fluoride
Na+ Sodium Cl- Chloride
K+ Potassium Br- Bromide
Rb+ Rubidium I- Iodide
Ag+ Silver O2- Oxide
Cs+ Cesium S2- Sulfide
Fr+ Francium Se2- Selenide
Be2+ Beryllium N3- Nitride
Mg2+ Magnesium P3- Phosphide
Ca2+ Calcium As3- Arsenide
Zn2+ Zinc C4- Carbide
Sr2+ Strontium N3- Azide
Cd2+ Cadmium CH3COO- or C2H3O2- Acetate
Ba2+ Barium AlO2- Aluminate
Ra2+ Radium NH2- Amide
Sc3+ Scandium Ag(CN)2- Argenticyanide
Al3+ Aluminum C6H5COO- Benzoate
La3+ Lanthanum HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate*
C2+ Carbon (II) HC2O4- Hydrogen oxalate*
C4+ Carbon (IV) HC8H4O4- Hydrogen phthalate*
Si2+ Silicon (II) HSO4- Hydrogen sulfate*
Si4+ Silicon (IV) HS- Hydrogen sulfide*
Ti2+ Titanium (II) HSO3- Hydrogen sulfite*
Ti3+ Titanium (III)/Titanous C4H5O6- Hydrogen tartrate*
Ti4+ Titanium (IV)/Titanic BrO3- Bromate
V2+ Vanadium (II) BrO2- Bromite
V3+ Vanadium (III)/Vanadous ClO3- Chlorate
V4+ Vanadium (IV) ClO2- Chlorite
V5+ Vanadium (V)/Vanadic CNO- Cyanate
Cr2+ Chromium (II)/Chromous CN- Cyanide
Cr3+ Chromium (III)/Chromic H2PO4- Dihydrogen Phosphate
Cr6+ Chromium (VI) HCOO- Formate
Mn2+ Manganese (II)/Manganous OH- Hydroxide
Mn3+ Manganese (III)/Manganic ClO- Hypochlorite
Mn4+ Manganese (IV) BrO- Hypobromite
Mn6+ Manganese (VI) IO- Hypoiodite
Mn7+ Manganese (VII) IO3- Iodate
Fe2+ Iron (II)/Ferrous IO2- Iodite
Fe3+ Iron (III)/Ferric BO2- Metaborate
Co2+ Cobalt (II)/Cobaltous PO3- Metaphosphate
Co3+ Cobalt (III)/Cobaltic AsO2- Metarsenite
Ni2+ Nickel (II)/Nickelous NO3- Nitrate
Ni3+ Nickel (III)/Nickelic NO2- Nitrite
Cu+ Copper (I)/Cuprous ClO4- Perchlorate
Cu2+ Copper (II)/Cupric IO4- Periodate
Ga+ Gallium (I) MnO4- Permanganate
Ga3+ Gallium (III) C7H5O3- Salicylate
Ge2+ Germanium (II) SCN- Thiocyanate
Ge4+ Germanium (IV) O 2- Superoxide
As3+ Arsenic (III)/Arsenous CO32- Carbonate
As5+ Arsenic (V)/Arsenic CrO42- Chromate
Mo2+ Molybdenum (II) Cr2O72- Dichromate
Mo3+ Molybdenum (III) HPO42- Monohydrogen phosphate
Mo4+ Molybdenum (IV) MnO42- Manganate
Mo6+ Molybdenum (VI) SiO32- Metasilicate
Ru2+ Ruthenium (II) MoO42- Molybdate
Ru3+ Ruthenium (III) C2O42- Oxalate
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Ru4+ Ruthenium (IV) O22- Peroxide

Ru8+ Ruthenium (VIII) C8H4O42- Phthalate
Rh+ Rhodium (I) PbO22- Plumbite
Rh3+ Rhodium (III) SiO32- Silicate
Pd2+ Palladium (II) SnO32- Stannate
Pd4+ Palladium (IV) SnO22- Stannite
In+ Indium (I) SO42- Sulfate
In3+ Indium (III) SO32- Sulfite
Sn2+ Tin (II)/Stannous C4H4O62- Tartrate
Sn4+ Tin (IV)/Stannic B4O72- Tetraborate
Sb3+ Antimony (III)/Antimonous S4O62- Tetrathionate
Sb5+ Antimony (V)/Antimonic S2O32- Thiosulfate
Ce3+ Cerium (III)/Cerous ZnO22- Zincate
Ce4+ Cerium (IV)/Ceric AlO33- Aluminate
Hf4+ Hafnium (IV) AsO43- Arsenate
Ta3+ Tantalum (III) AsO33- Arsenite
Ta5+ Tantalum (V) BiO43- Bismuthate
W4+ Tungsten (IV) BO33- Borate
W6+ Tungsten (VI) C6H5O73- Citrate
Re4+ Rhenium (IV) HOC(COO-)(CH2COO-)2 Citrate
Re7+ Rhenium (VII) Fe(CN)63- Ferricyanide
Os3+ Osmium (III) PO43- Phosphate
Os4+ Osmium (IV) PO33- Phosphite
Os8+ Osmium (VIII) NSO33- Sulfamide
Ir3+ Iridium (III) Fe(CN)64- Ferrocyanide
Ir4+ Iridium (IV) SiO44- Orthosilicate
Ir8+ Iridium (VIII) As2O74- Pyroarsenate
Pt2+ Platinum (II)/Platinous P2O74- Pyrophosphate
Pt3+ Platinum (III) P3O105- Tripolyphosphate
Pt4+ Platinum (IV)/Platinic B4O96- Tetraborate (alternate)
Au+ Gold (I)/Aurous
Au3+ Gold (III)/Auric
Hg22+ Mercury (I)/Mercurous
Hg2+ Mercury (II)/Mercuric
Tl+ Thallium (I)/Thallous
Tl3+ Thallium (III)/Thallic
Pb+ Lead (I)
Pb2+ Lead (II)/Plumbous
Pb4+ Lead (IV)/Plumbic
Bi3+ Bismuth (III)/Bismuthous
Bi5+ Bismuth (V)/Bismuthic
U3+ Uranium (III)
U4+ Uranium (IV)
NH4+ Ammonium
H3O+ Hydronium
PH4+ Phosphonium
*The “bi-” prefix is worked as well (e.g. Hydrogen carbonate – Bicarbonate)
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCE TABLE 5: STANDARD POTENTIALS OF REDUCTION IN A WATER SOLUTION AT 25°C

5A: ACIDIC SOLUTION [H + ] AT 1 M (1 MOLAR)

Reaction From To 𝐄°𝐫𝐞𝐝
(V)
−
F2(g) + 2e− → 2F(aq) Fluorine gas Fluoride ion +2.889
3+ − 2+
Co(aq) + e → Co(aq) Cobalt (III) ion Cobalt (II) ion +1.953
Pb4+ − 2+
(aq) + 2e → Pb(aq)
Lead (IV) ion Lead (II) ion +1.8
+ Peroxide in hydrogen Oxide in water +1.763
H2 O2(aq) + 2H(aq) + 2e− → 2H2 O(ℓ)
peroxide
+
NiO2(s) + 4H(aq) + 2e− → Ni2+
(aq) + 2H2 O(ℓ)
Nickel (IV) in nickel dioxide Nickel (II) ion +1.7
2− +
PbO2(s) + SO4(aq) + 4H(aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) + 2H2 O(ℓ) Lead (IV) in lead dioxide Lead (II) in lead (II) sulfate +1.687
Au+ −
(aq) + e → Au(s) Gold (I) ion Elemental gold +1.68
− + −
MnO4(aq) + 4H(aq) + 3e → MnO2(s) + 2H2 O(ℓ) Manganese (VII) in Manganese (IV) in +1.679
permanganate ion manganese dioxide
+ Chlorine (III) in chlorous Chlorine (I) in hypochlorous +1.64
HClO2(aq) + 2H(aq) + 2e− → HClO(aq) + 2H2 O(ℓ)
acid acid
+ Chlorine (I) in hypochlorous Chlorine gas +1.63
2HClO(aq) + 2H(aq) + 2e− → Cl2(g) + 2H2 O(ℓ)
acid
Ce4+ − 3+
(aq) + e → Ce(aq) Cerium (IV) ion Cerium (III) ion +1.61
+
NaBiO3(s) + 6H(aq) + 2e− → Bi3+ +
(aq) + Na (aq) + 3H2 O(ℓ)
Bismuth (V) in sodium Bismuth (III) ion +1.6
bismuthate
1 Bromine (V) in bromate ion Liquid bromine +1.52
BrO− + −
3(aq) + 6H(aq) + 5e → Br + 3H2 O(ℓ)
2 2(ℓ)
− + −
2BrO3(aq) + 12H(aq) + 10e → Br2(ℓ) + 6H2 O(ℓ)
MnO− + − 2+
4(aq) + 8H(aq) + 5e → Mn(aq) + 4H2 O(ℓ)
Manganese (VII) in Manganese (II) ion +1.512
permanganate ion
Mn3+ − 2+
(aq) + e → Mn(aq)
Manganese (III) ion Manganese (II) ion +1.51
Au3+ −
(aq) + 3e → Au(s)
Gold (III) ion Solid gold +1.498
1 Chlorine (V) in chlorate ion Chlorine gas +1.458
ClO− + −
3(aq) + 6H(aq) + 5e → Cl2(g) + 3H2 O(ℓ)
2
2ClO− + −
3(aq) + 12H(aq) + 10e → Cl2(g) + 6H2 O(ℓ)
BrO− + − −
3(aq) + 6H(aq) + 6e → Br(aq) + 3H2 O(ℓ)
Bromine (V) in bromate ion Bromide ion +1.44
−
−
Cl2(g) + 2e → 2Cl(aq) Chlorine gas Chloride ion +1.360
2− +
Cr2 O7(aq) + 14H(aq) 3+
+ 6e− → 2Cr(aq) + 7H2 O(ℓ) Chromium (VI) in Chromium (III) ion +1.33
dichromate ion
+ + + Nitrogen (-II) in Nitrogen (-III) in ammonium +1.24
N2 H5(aq) + 3H(aq) + 2e− → 2NH4(aq)
hydrazinium
+
MnO2(s) + 4H(aq) + 2e− → Mn2+
(aq) + 2H2 O(ℓ)
Manganese (IV) in Manganese (II) ion +1.23
manganese dioxide
+ Oxygen gas Oxide in water +1.229
O2(g) + 4H(aq) + 4e− → 2H2 O(ℓ)
2+
Pt (aq) + 2e− → Pt (s) Platinum (II) ion Elemental platinum +1.2
1 Iodine (V) in iodate ion Aqueous iodine +1.195
IO− + −
3(aq) + 6H(aq) + 5e → I2(aq) + 3H2 O(ℓ)
2
2IO− + −
3(aq) + 12H(aq) + 10e → I2(aq) + 6H2 O(ℓ)
ClO− + − −
4(aq) + 2H(aq) + 2e → ClO3(aq) + H2 O(ℓ)
Chlorine (VII) in perchlorate Chlorine (V) in chlorate ion +1.19
ion
−
Br2(ℓ) + 2e− → 2Br(aq) Liquid bromine Bromide ion +1.077
AuCl4(aq) + 3e → Au(s) + 4Cl−
− −
(aq) Gold (III) in Elemental gold +1.001
tetrachloroaurate
Pd2+ −
(aq) + 2e → Pd(s)
Palladium (II) ion Elemental palladium +0.987
− + − Nitrogen (V) in nitrate ion Nitrogen (II) in nitric oxide +0.964
NO3(aq) + 4H(aq) + 3e → NO(g) + 2H2 O(ℓ)
NO− + −
3(aq) + 3H(aq) + 2e → HNO2(aq) + 2H2 O(ℓ) Nitrogen (V) in nitrate ion Nitrogen (III) in nitrous acid +0.94
2Hg (aq) + 2e− → Hg 2+
2+
2(aq)
Mercury (II) ion Mercury (I) ion +0.908
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Hg 2+ −
(aq) + 2e → Hg (ℓ)
Mercury (II) ion Liquid mercury +0.855
+ − Silver ion Elemental silver +0.799
Ag (aq) + e → Ag (s)
Hg 2+ −
2(aq) + 2e → 2Hg (ℓ)
Mercury (I) ion Liquid mercury +0.796
Fe(aq) + e → Fe2+
3+ −
(aq)
Iron (III) ion Iron (II) ion +0.769
− −
SbCl6(aq) + 2e− → SbCl4(aq) + 2Cl−
(aq) Antimony (V) in Antimony (III) in +0.75
hexachloroantimonate ion tetrachloroantimonate ion
[PtCl4 ]2− − −
(aq) + 2e → Pt (s) + 4Cl(aq)
Platinum (II) in Elemental platinum +0.73
tetrachloroplatinate ion
+ Oxygen gas Peroxide in hydrogen +0.682
O2(g) + 2H(aq) + 2e− → H2 O2(aq)
peroxide
[PtCl6 ]2− − 2− −
(aq) + 2e → [PtCl4 ](aq) + 2Cl(aq) Platinum (IV) in Platinum (II) in +0.68
hexachloroplatinate ion tetrachloroplatinate ion
+ Arsenic (V) in arsenic acid Arsenic (III) in arsenous acid +0.58
H3 AsO4(aq) + 2H(aq) + 2e− → H3 AsO3(aq) + H2 O(ℓ)
−
I2(s) + 2e− → 2I(aq) Solid iodine Iodide ion +0.534
+ − Tellurium (IV) in tellurium Elemental tellurium +0.529
TeO2(s) + 4H(aq) + 4e → Te(s) + 2H2 O(ℓ)
dioxide
Cu+ −
(aq) + e → Cu(s) Copper (I) ion Elemental copper +0.518
3−
[RhCl6 ](aq) + 3e− → Rh Rhodium (III) in Elemental rhodium +0.44
hexachlororhodate ion
Cu2+ −
(aq) + 2e → Cu(s) Copper (II) ion Elemental copper +0.339
Hg 2 Cl2(s) + 2e → 2Hg (ℓ) + 2Cl−
−
(aq) Mercury (I) in mercury (I) Liquid mercury +0.27
chloride
AgCl(s) + e− → Ag (s) + Cl− (aq) Silver in silver chloride Elemental silver +0.222
SO2− + −
4(aq) + 4H(aq) + 2e → H2 SO3(𝑎𝑞) + H2 O(ℓ)
Sulfur (VI) in sulfate Sulfur (II) in sulfurous acid +0.17
Cu2+ − +
(aq) + e → Cu(aq)
Copper (II) ion Copper (I) ion +0.161
2− + −
SO4(aq) + 4H(aq) + 2e → SO2(g) + 2H2 O(ℓ) Sulfur (VI) in sulfate Sulfur (IV) in sulfur dioxide +0.155
Sn4+ − 2+
(aq) + 2e → Sn(aq)
Tin (IV) ion Tin (II) ion +0.154
+ Elemental sulfur Sulfide in hydrogen sulfide +0.144
S(s) + 2H(aq) + 2e− → H2 S(aq)
−
−
AgBr(s) + e → Ag (s) + Br(aq) Silver in silver bromide Elemental silver +0.073
+ −
𝟐𝐇(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐞 → 𝐇𝟐(𝐠) Hydrogen ion Hydrogen gas 0.000
+ + Nitrogen (I) in nitrous oxide Nitrogen (-I) in ammonium –0.05
N2 O(g) + 6H(aq) + H2 O(ℓ) + 4e− → 2NH3 OH(aq)
ion
Pb2+ −
(aq) + 2e → Pb(s)
Lead (II) ion Elemental lead –0.127
2+
Sn(aq) + 2e− → Sn(s) Tin (II) ion Elemental tin –0.141
−
AgI(s) + e− → Ag (s) + I(aq) Silver in silver iodide Elemental silver –0.152
2+
Ni(aq) + 2e− → Ni(s) Nickel (II) ion Elemental nickel –0.236
2− −
[SnF6 ](aq) + 4e− → Sn(s) + 6F(aq) Tin (IV) in Elemental tin -0.25
hexafluorostannate
Co2+ −
(aq) + 2e → Co(s)
Cobalt (II) ion Elemental cobalt –0.282
+ − Thallium (I) ion Elemental thallium –0.336
Tl(aq) + e → Tl(s)
PbSO4(s) + 2e− → Pb(s) + SO2−4(aq)
Lead (II) in lead (II) sulfate Elemental lead –0.356
+ Elemental selenium Selenide in hydroselenic –0.40
Se(s) + 2H(aq) + 2e− → H2 Se(aq)
acid
Cd2+ −
(aq) + 2e → Cd(s) Cadmium ion Elemental cadmium –0.402
3+ − 2+
Cr(aq) + e → Cr(aq) Chromium (III) ion Chromium (II) ion –0.408
Fe2+ −
(aq) + 2e → Fe(s)
Iron (II) ion Elemental iron –0.409
+ Carbon (IV) in carbon Carbon (III) in oxalic acid –0.44
2CO2(g) + 2H(aq) + 2e− → (COOH)2(aq)
dioxide
Ga3+ −
(aq) + 3e → Ga(s) Gallium (III) ion Elemental gallium –0.53
+ − Mercury (II) in mercury (II) Liquid mercury –0.72
HgS(s) + 2H(aq) + 2e → Hg (ℓ) + H2 S(g)
sulfide
3+
Cr(aq) + 3e− → Cr(s) Chromium (III) ion Elemental chromium –0.744
2+
Zn(aq) + 2e− → Zn(s) Zinc ion Elemental zinc –0.762
2+
Cr(aq) + 2e− → Cr(s) Chromium (II) ion Elemental chromium –0.91
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

2−
FeS(s) + 2e− → Fe(s) + S(aq) Iron (II) in iron (II) sulfide Elemental iron –1.01
2+ −
V(aq) + 2e → V(s) Vanadium (II) ion Elemental vanadium –1.18
Mn2+ −
(aq) + 2e → Mn(s)
Manganese (II) ion Elemental manganese –1.182
− 2−
CdS(s) + 2e → Cd(s) + S(aq) Cadmium in cadmium Elemental cadmium –1.21
sulfide
2−
ZnS(s) + 2e− → Zn(s) + S(aq) Zinc in zinc sulfide Elemental zinc –1.44
4+
Zr(aq) + 4e− → Zr(s) Zirconium (IV) ion Elemental zirconium -1.53
Al3+ −
(aq) + 3e → Al(s)
Aluminum ion Elemental aluminum –1.68
−
−
H2(g) + 2e → 2H(aq) Elemental hydrogen Hydride ion –2.25
2+ −
Mg (aq) + 2e → Mg (s) Magnesium ion Elemental magnesium –2.357
Na+ −
(aq) + e → Na(s) Sodium ion Elemental sodium –2.714
2+
Ca(aq) + 2e− → Ca(s) Calcium ion Elemental calcium –2.869
2+
Sr(aq) + 2e− → Sr(s) Strontium ion Elemental strontium -2.89
2+
Ba(aq) + 2e− → Ba(s) Barium ion Elemental barium –2.906
Rb+ −
(aq) + e → Rb(s) Rubidium ion Elemental rubidium -2.925
+ Potassium ion Elemental potassium –2.936
K (aq) + e− → K (s)
Li+ −
(aq) + e → Li(s) Lithium ion Elemental lithium –3.040

5B: BASIC SOLUTION [OH - ] AT 1 M (1 MOLAR)

Reaction Reduction of… To… 𝐄°𝐫𝐞𝐝 in
V
ClO− − − −
(aq) + H2 O(ℓ) + 2e → Cl(aq) + 2OH(aq) Chlorine (I) in hypochlorite Chloride ion +0.890
ion
− −
OOH(aq) + H2 O(ℓ) + 2e− → 3OH(aq) Peroxide in perhydroxide Oxide in hydroxide +0.88
−
−
2NH2 OH(aq) + 2e → N2 H4(aq) + 2OH(aq) Nitrogen (-I) in Nitrogen (-II) in hydrazine +0.74
hydroxylamine
ClO− − − −
3(aq) + 3H2 O(ℓ) + 6e → Cl(aq) + 6OH(aq) Chlorine (V) in chlorate ion Chloride ion +0.614
− −
−
MnO4(aq) + 2H2 O(ℓ) + 3e → MnO2((s)) + 4OH(aq) Manganese (VII) in Manganese (IV) in manganese +0.588
permanganate ion dioxide
−
MnO4((aq)) + e− → MnO2−
4(aq)
Manganese (VII) in Manganese (VI) in manganate +0.564
permanganate ion ion
−
NiO2(s) + 2H2 O(ℓ) + 2e− → Ni(OH)2(s) + 2OH(aq) Nickel (IV) in nickel dioxide Nickel (II) in nickel (II) +0.49
hydroxide
Ag 2 CrO4((s)) + 2e− → Ag (s) + CrO2−
4(aq)
Silver in silver chromate Elemental silver +0.446
−
O2(g) + 2H2 O(ℓ) + 4e− → 4OH(aq) Oxygen gas Oxide in hydroxide +0.401
ClO− − −
4(aq) + H2 O(ℓ) + 2e → ClO3(aq) + 2OH(aq)
−
Chlorine (VII) in perchlorate Chlorine (V) in chlorate ion +0.398
ion
−
Ag 2 O(s) + H2 O(ℓ) + 2e− → 2Ag (s) + 2OH(aq) Silver in silver oxide Elemental silver +0.34
− −
−
2NO2(aq) + 3H2 O(ℓ) + 4e → N2 O(g) + 6OH(aq) Nitrogen (III) in nitrite ion Nitrogen (I) in nitrous oxide +0.15
−
−
N2 H4(aq) + 2H2 O(ℓ) + 2e → 2NH3(aq) + 2OH(aq) Nitrogen (-II) in hydrazine Nitride in ammonia +0.10
3+ − 2+
[Co(NH3 )6 ](aq) + e → [Co(NH3 )6 ](aq) Cobalt (III) in Cobalt (II) in hexaaminecobalt +0.10
hexaaminecobalt (III) (II)
−
HgO(s) + H2 O(ℓ) + 2e− → Hg (ℓ) + 2OH(aq) Mercury (II) in mercury (II) Liquid mercury +0.0984
oxide
− −
O2(g) + H2 O(ℓ) + 2e− → OOH(aq) + OH(aq) Oxygen gas Peroxide in perhydroxide ion +0.076
− − −
NO3(aq) + H2 O(ℓ) + 2e− → NO2(aq) + 2OH(aq) Nitrogen (V) in nitrate ion Nitrogen (III) in nitrite ion +0.004
−
MnO2(s) + 2H2 O(ℓ) + 2e− → Mn(OH)2(s) + 2OH(aq) Manganese (IV) in manganese Manganese (II) in manganese –0.05
dioxide (II) hydroxide
CrO2− − −
4(aq) + 4H2 O(ℓ) + 3e → Cr(OH)3(s) + 5OH(aq)
Chromium (VI) in chromate Chromium (III) in chromium –0.12
ion (III) hydroxide
NO− − −
3(aq) + 2H2 O(ℓ) + 3e → NO(g) + 4OH(aq) Nitrogen (V) in nitrate ion Nitrogen (II) in nitrogen oxide –0.140
−
−
Cu(OH)2(s) + 2e → Cu(s) + 2OH(aq) Copper (II) in copper (II) Elemental copper –0.36
hydroxide
2−
S(s) + 2e− → S(aq) Elemental sulfur Sulfide ion –0.445
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

−
Fe(OH)3(s) + e− → Fe(OH)2(s) + OH(aq) Iron (III) in iron (III) Iron (II) in iron (II) hydroxide –0.547
hydroxide
−
2H2 O(ℓ) + 2e− → H2(g) + 2OH(aq) Hydrogen in water Hydrogen gas –0.828
2NO−
3(aq)
− −
+ 2H2 O(ℓ) + 2e → N2 O4(g) + 4OH(aq) Nitrogen (V) in nitrate ion Nitrogen (IV) in dinitrogen –0.85
tetroxide
−
Fe(OH)2(s) + 2e− → Fe(s) + 2OH(aq) Iron (II) in iron (II) hydroxide Elemental iron –0.891
SO2− − 2− −
4(aq) + H2 O(ℓ) + 2e → SO3(aq) + 2OH(aq)
Sulfur (VI) in sulfate ion Sulfur (IV) in sulfite ion –0.93
−
−
N2(g) + 4H2 O(ℓ) + 4e → N2 H4(aq) + 4OH(aq) Nitrogen gas Nitrogen (-II) in hydrazine –1.15
2− − −
[Zn(OH)4 ](aq) + 2e → Zn(s) + 4CN(aq) Zinc in tetrahydroxozincate Elemental zinc –1.22
(II)
−
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2e− → Zn(s) + 2OH(aq) Zinc in zinc hydroxide Elemental zinc –1.245
2− − −
[Zn(CN)4 ](aq) + 2e → Zn(s) + 4CN(aq) Zinc in tetracyanozincate (II) Elemental zinc –1.26
−
Cr(OH)3(s) + 3e− → Cr(s) + 3OH(aq) Chromium (III) in chromium Elemental chromium –1.30
(III) hydroxide
SiO2− − −
3(aq) + 3H2 O(ℓ) + 4e → Si(s) + 6OH(aq)
Silicon (IV) in silicate ion Elemental silicon –1.70
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCE TABLE 6: NUCLEAR MASSES ON THE 12C SCALE

Symbol Z A Mass (amu) Symbol Z A Mass (amu)
e 0 0 0.00055 Br 35 79 78.8992
n 0 1 1.00867 35 81 80.8971
H (or p in 1 1 1.00728 35 87 86.9028
the case of 1 2 2.01355 Rb 37 89 88.8913
1
1H) 1 3 3.01550 Sr 38 90 89.8869
He (α in the 2 3 3.01493 Mo 42 99 98.8846
case of 42He) 2 4 4.00150 Ru 44 106 105.8832
Li 3 6 6.01348 Ag 47 109 108.8790
3 7 7.01436 Cd 48 109 108.8786
Be 4 9 9.00999 48 115 114.8791
4 10 10.01134 Sn 50 120 119.8748
B 5 10 10.01019 Ce 58 144 143.8817
5 11 11.00656 58 146 145.8868
C 6 11 11.00814 Pr 59 144 143.8809
6 12 11.99671 Sm 62 152 151.8857
6 13 13.00006 Eu 63 157 156.8908
6 14 13.99995 Er 68 168 167.8951
O 8 16 15.99052 Hf 72 179 178.9065
8 17 16.99474 W 74 186 185.9138
8 18 17.99477 Os 76 192 191.9197
F 9 18 17.99601 Au 79 196 195.9231
9 19 18.99346 Hg 80 196 195.9219
Na 11 23 22.98373 Pb 82 206 205.9295
Mg 12 24 23.97845 82 207 206.9309
12 25 24.97925 82 208 207.9316
12 26 25.97600 Po 84 210 209.9368
Al 13 26 25.97977 84 218 217.9628
13 27 26.97439 Rn 86 222 221.9703
13 28 27.97477 Ra 88 226 225.9771
Si 14 28 27.96924 Th 90 230 229.9837
S 16 32 31.96329 Pa 91 234 233.9934
Cl 17 35 34.95952 U 92 233 232.9890
17 37 36.95657 92 235 234.9934
Ar 18 40 39.95250 92 238 238.0003
K 19 39 38.95328 92 239 239.0038
19 40 39.95358 Np 93 239 239.0019
Ca 20 40 39.95162 Pu 94 239 239.0006
Ti 22 48 47.93588 94 241 241.0051
Cr 24 52 51.92734 Am 95 241 241.0045
Fe 26 56 55.92066 Cm 96 242 242.0061
Co 27 59 58.91837 Bk 97 245 245.0129
Ni 28 59 58.91897 Cf 98 248 248.0186
Zn 30 64 63.91268 Es 99 251 251.0255
30 72 71.91128 Fm 100 252 252.0278
Ge 32 76 75.90380 100 254 254.0031
As 33 79 78.90288
The masses given above are nuclear masses. The masses of the corresponding atoms can be calculated by adding the
masses of each extranuclear electron (0.000549).
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCE TABLE 7: HALF -LIVES FOR SEVERAL RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES

Types of Emission: 𝛼 – alpha decay, 𝛽 − – beta decay or beta-minus decay, 𝛾 – gamma decay, 𝛽 + – positron emission or
beta-minus decay, 𝐸. 𝐶. – electron capture, 𝑝 – proton emission, 𝑛 – neutron emission. 𝑆. 𝐹. – spontaneous fission [these
will produce various products]

Product in bold indicates stable product

Isotope Half-Life Decay Product Isotope Half-Life Decay Product

Be-7 53.22 d 𝐸. 𝐶. Li-7 Ra-224 3.66 d 𝛼 Rn-220
Be-8 8.19×10-17 s 𝛼 2 He-4 Ra-226 1600 y 𝛼 Rn-222
C-14 5730 y 𝛽− N-14 Ra-228 5.75 y 𝛽− Ac-228
N-13 9.97 m 𝛽+ C-13 Ac-228 6.13 h 𝛽− Th-228
F-15 4.1×10-22 s 𝑝 O-14 Th-228 1.913 y 𝛼 Ra-224
Na-24 15.00 h 𝛽− Mg-24 Th-232 1.4×1010 y 𝛼 Ra-228
P-32 14.29 d 𝛽− S-32 Th-233 22 m 𝛽− Pa-233
K-40 1.27×109 y 𝛽 , 𝛽 + , 𝐸. 𝐶.
−
Ca-40 (𝛽 − ) Th-234 24.10 d 𝛽− Pa-234
Ar-40 (𝛽 + , 𝐸. 𝐶.)
Fe-49 0.08 s 𝛽+ Mn-49 Pa-233 27 d 𝛽− U-233
Fe-60 2.6×106 y 𝛽− Co-60 Pa-234 6.75 h 𝛽− U-234
Co-60 5.27 y 𝛽− Ni-60 U-233 1.59×105 y 𝛼 Th-229
Rb-87 4.7×1010 y 𝛽− Sr-87 U-234 2.45×105 y 𝛼 Th-230
Sr-90 29 y 𝛽− Y-90 U-235 7.03×108 y 𝛼 Th-231
In-115 5.1×1015 y 𝛽− Sn-115 U-236 2.34×107 y 𝛼 Th-232
I-131 8.040 d 𝛽− Xe-131 U-238 4.47×109 y 𝛼 Th-234
Cs-137 30.17 y 𝛽− Ba-137 U-239 23.54 m 𝛽− Np-239
Ce-142 5×1015 y 𝛼 Ba-138 Np-237 2.14×106 y 𝛼 Pa-233
Tl-208 3.07 m 𝛽− Pb-208 Np-239 2.3 d 𝛼 Pa-235
Pb-210 22.3 y 𝛽− Bi-210 Pu-239 2.407×104 y 𝛼 U-235
Pb-212 10.6 h 𝛽− Bi-212 Pu-240 6.54×103 y 𝛼 U-236 (𝛼)
Pb-214 26.8 m 𝛽− Bi-214 Pu-241 14.4 y 𝛼, 𝛽 − Am-241 (𝛽 − )
U-237 (𝛼)
Bi-206 6.243 d 𝐸. 𝐶. Pb-206 Am-241 432.2 y 𝛼 Np-237
Bi-210 5.01 d 𝛽− Po-210 Cm-242 162.8 d 𝛼 Pu-238
Bi-212 60.55 m 𝑎, 𝛽 − Tl-208 (𝛼) Bk-243 4.5 h 𝛼, 𝐸. 𝐶. Pu-239 (𝛼)
Po-212 (𝛽 − ) Cm-243 (𝐸. 𝐶.)
Po-210 138.4 d 𝛼 Pb-206 Es-253 20.47 d 𝛼 Bk-249
Po-212 3×10-7 s 𝛼 Pb-208 Fm-254 3.24 h 𝛼, 𝑆. 𝐹. Cf-250 (𝛼)
Po-216 0.15 s 𝛼 Pb-212 Fm-255 20.1 h 𝛼 Cf-251
Po-218 3.05 m 𝛼 Pb-214 Md-256 76 m 𝛼, 𝐸. 𝐶. Es-252 (𝛼)
Fm-256 (𝐸. 𝐶.)
At-215 1.0×10-4 s 𝛼 Bi-211 No-254 55 s 𝛼 Fm-250
At-218 1.6 s 𝛼 Bi-214 Lr-257 0.65 s 𝛼 Md-253
Rn-220 55.6 s 𝛼 Po-216 Db-260 1.5 s 𝛼, 𝑆. 𝐹. Lr-256 (𝛼)
Rn-222 3.82 d 𝛼 Po-218 Sg-263 0.8 s 𝛼, 𝑆. 𝐹. Rf-259 (𝛼)
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCE TABLE 8: DECAY CHAINS

Bold Italic- starting nuclide, Bold- stable nuclide

DECAY TYPES
Alpha (α) decay – ejects a helium-4 nucleus. Examples: beryllium-8 to two helium-4, uranium-238 to thorium-234,
plutonium-239 to uranium-235.
Beta-minus (β–) decay – converts a neutron to a proton and ejects an electron (e –) and an electron antineutrino (ν̅e).
Examples: thorium-234 to protactinium-234m, carbon-14 to nitrogen-14, cobalt-60 to nickel-60 (also produces gamma
rays), strontium-90 to yttrium-90, cesium-137 to barium-137.
Beta-plus (β+) decay (Positron emission) – converts a proton to a neutron and ejects a positron (e+) and an electron
neutrino (νe). Examples: carbon-11 to boron-11 (also possible by electron capture).
Gamma (γ) decay (Isomeric transition) – emits a photon, reducing a high-energy state to a low-energy state. Examples:
protactinium-234m to protactinium-234.
Electron capture (EC) – converts a proton to a neutron by taking in an electron and ejects an electron neutrino (ν e).
Examples: beryllium-7 to lithium-7, carbon-11 to boron-11 (also possible by beta-plus decay).
Proton emission (p) – emits a proton. Examples: helium-2 to two hydrogen-1.
Neutron emission (n) – emits a neutron. Example: helium-5 to helium-4.

8A: 4N OR THORIUM SERIES

Nuclide Historic Historic Decay Mode Half-life Energy Product of
Name Name (long) released in Decay
(short) MeV
252Cf α 2.645 y 6.1181 248Cm

248Cm α 3.4×105 y 5.162 244Pu

244Pu α 8×107 y 4.589 240U

240U β– 14.1 h 0.39 240Np

240Np β– 1.032 h 2.2 240Pu

240Pu α 6561 y 5.1683 236U

236U Thoruranium α 2.3×107 y 4.494 232Th

232Th Th Thorium α 1.405×1010 y 4.081 228Ra

228Ra MsTh1 Mesothorium β– 5.75 y 0.046 228Ac

1
228Ac MsTh2 Mesothorium β– 6.25 y 2.124 228Th

2
228Th RdTh Radiothorium α 1.9116 y 5.520 224Ra

224Ra ThX Thorium X α 3.6319 d 5.789 220Rn

220Rn Tn Thoron, α 55.6 s 6.404 216Po

Thorium
Emanation
216Po ThA Thorium A α 0.145 s 6.906 212Pb

212Pb ThB Thorium B β– 10.64 h 0.570 212Bi

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

212Bi ThC Thorium C 64.06% β–, 60.55 min 2.252 (β–), 6.208 212Po, 208Tl

35.94% α (α)
212Po ThC’ Thorium C’ α 299 ns 8.784 208Pb

208Tl ThC’’ Thorium C’’ β– 3.053 min 1.803 208Pb

208Pb ThD Thorium D STABLE STABLE

8B: 4N+1 OR NEPTUNIUM SERIES

Nuclide Decay Mode Half-life Energy released in Product of Decay
MeV
249Cf α 351 y 5.813+.388 245Cm

245Cm α 8500 y 5.362+.175 241Pu

241Pu β– 14.4 a 0.021 241Am

241Am α 432.7 a 5.638 237Np

237Np α 2.14×106 y 4.959 233Pa

233Pa β– 27.0 d 0.571 233U

233U α 1.592×105 y 4.909 229Th

229Th α 7340 y 5.168 225Ra

225Ra β– 14.9 d 0.36 225Ac

225Ac α 10.0 d 5.935 221Fr

221Fr 99.9952% α, 0.0048% β– 4.8 min 6.3 (α), 0.314 (β–) 217At, 221Ra

221Ra 3b1 28 s 6.9 217Rn

217At 99.992% α, 0.008% β– 32 ms 7.0 (α), 0.737 (β–) 213Bi, 217Rn

217Rn 3b1 540 μs 7.9 213Po

213Bi 97.80% β–, 2.20% α 46.5 min 1.423 (β–), 5.87 (α) 213Po, 209Tl

213Po α 3.72 μs 8.536 209Pb

209Tl β– 2.2 min 3.99 209Pb

209Pb β– 3.25 h 0.644 209Bi

209Bi α 1.9 × 1019 y 3.137 205Tl

205Tl STABLE STABLE

8C: 4N+2 OR URANIUM SERIES

Nuclide Historic Historic Decay Mode Half-life Energy Product of
Name Name released in Decay
(short) (long) MeV
250Cf α 13.08 y 6.12844 246Cm

246Cm α 4800 y 5.47513 242Pu

242Pu α 3.8×105 y 4.98453 238U

238U UI Uranium I α 4.468×109 y 4.26975 234Th

234Th UX1 Uranium X1 β– 24.10 d 0.273088 234mPa

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

234mPa UX2, Bv Uranium X2, 99.84% β– 1.159 min 2.268205 (β–), 234U, 234Pa

Brevium 0.16% γ 0.07392 (IT)

234Pa UZ Uranium Z β– 6.70 h 2.194285 234U

234U UII Uranium II α 2.45×105 y 4.8698 230Th

230Th Io Ionium α 7.54×104 y 4.76975 226Ra

226Ra Ra Radium α 1600 y 4.87062 222Rn

222Rn Rn Radon, α 3.8235 d 5.59031 218Po

Radium
Emanation
218Po RaA Radium A 99.980% α, 3.098 min 6.11468 (α), 214Pb, 218At

0.020% β– 0.259913 (β–)

218At 99.9% α, 0.1% 1.5 s 6.874 (α), 214Bi, 218Rn

β– 2.881314(β–)
218Rn α 35 ms 7.26254 214Po

214Pb RaB Radium B β– 26.8 min 1.019237 214Bi

214Bi RaC Radium C 99.979% β–, 19.9 min 3.269857 (β–), 214Po, 210Tl

0.021% α 5.62119 (α)

214Po RaC’ Radium C’ α 164.3 μs 7.83346 210Pb

210Tl RaC’’ Radium C’’ β– 1.3 min 5.48213 210Pb

210Pb RaD Radium D 100% β–, 22.20 y 0.063487 (β–), 210Bi, 206Hg

1.9×10-6% α 3.7923 (α)

210Bi RaE Radium E 100% β–, 5.012 d 1.161234 (β–), 210Po, 206Tl

1.32×10-4% α 5.03647 (α)

210Po RaF Radium F α 138.376 d 5.03647 206Pb

206Hg β– 8.32 min 1.307649 206Tl

206Tl RaE Radium E β– 4.202 min 1.5322211 206Pb

206Pb RaG Radium G STABLE STABLE

8D: 4N+3 OR ACTINIUM SERIES

Nuclide Historic Historic Decay Mode Half-life in y Energy Product of
Name Name (long) released in Decay
(short) MeV
251Cf α 900.6 y 6.176 247Cm

247Cm α 1.56×107 y 5.353 243Pu

243Pu β– 4.95556 h 0.579 243Am

243Am α 7388 y 5.439 239Np

239Np β– 2.3565 d 0.723 239Pu

239Pu α 2.41×104 y 5.244 235U

235U AcU Actin α 7.04×108 y 4.678 231Th

Uranium
231Th UY Uranium Y β– 25.52 h 0.391 231Pa

231Pa Pa Protactinium α 32670 y 5.150 227Ac

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

227Ac Ac Actinium 98.62% β–, 21.772 y 0.045 (β–), 5.042 227Th, 223Fr

1.38% α (α)
227Th RdAc Radioactinium α 18.68 d 6.147 223Ra

223Fr AcK Actinium K 99.994% β–, 22.00 min 1.149 (β–), 5.340 223Ra, 219At

0.006% α (α)
223Ra AcX Actinium X α 11.43 d 5.979 219Rn

219At 97.00% α, 56 s 6.275 (α), 1.700 215Bi, 219Rn

3.00% β– (β–)
219Rn An Actinon, α 3.96 s 6.946 215Po

Actinium
Emanation
215Bi β– 7.6 MIN 2.250 215Po

215Po AcA Actinium A 99.99977% α, 1.781 ms 7.527 (α), 0.715 211Pb, 215At

0.00023% β– (β–)
215At α 0.1 ms 8.178 211Bi

211Pb AcB Actinium B β– 36.1 min 1.367 211Bi

211Bi AcC Actinium C 99.724% α, 2.14 min 6.751 (α), 0.575 207Tl, 211Po

0.276% β– (β–)
211Po AcC’ Actinium C’ α 516 ms 7.595 207Pb

207Tl AcC’’ Actinium C’’ β– 4.77 min 1.418 207Pb

207Pb AcD Actinium D STABLE STABLE

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCE TABLE 9: ACID -BASE INDICATOR CHART

Name of indicator Color at lower pH pH range End-point Color at higher pH

Methyl violet yellow 0.0 to 1.6 0.8 blue
Thymol blue red 1.2 to 2.8 2.8 yellow
Methyl orange red 3.2 to 4.4 3.7 yellow
Bromophenol blue yellow 2.8 to 4.6 4.0 blue
Bromocresol green yellow 3.8 to 5.4 4.7 blue
Methyl red red 4.2 to 6.3 5.1 yellow
Bromothymol blue yellow 6.0 to 7.6 7.0 blue
Thymol blue yellow 8.0 to 9.6 8.1 blue
Phenolphthalein colorless 8.2 to 10.0 9.3 pink/violet
Alizarin yellow yellow 10.1 to 13.0 12.5 orange/red
PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

REFERENCES
Books

Barquen, A., Peña, G. (2016a). Exploring life through science: General chemistry 1. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

Barquen, A., Peña, G. (2016b). Exploring life through science: General chemistry 2. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

Cañete, M.S., Azarcon, M.C., Blasabas, G., Gonzalez, M., Reyes, R., Sarmiento, J., Son, J. (2016). Laboratory safety manual.
University of San Jose-Recoletos Junior High School Department.

E-Books

American Chemical Society Joint Board-Council Committee on Chemical Safety. (2017). Safety in academic chemistry
laboratories (8th ed.). American Chemical Society. https://www.acs.org/content/dam/
acsorg/about/governance/committees/chemicalsafety/publications/safety-in-academic-chemistry-laboratories-
students.pdf

Labster Simulations

Labster. (2020). Concrete materials testing [Simulation software].

Labster. (2020). Eutrophication [Simulation software].

Labster. (2020). Nuclear chemistry [Simulation software].

Labster. (2020). Redox reactions [Simulation software].

Labster. (2020). Titration [Simulation software].

Labster. (2020). Wastewater management [Simulation software].

Labster Theory Pages

Acid-base indicator. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/acid-base-indicator/

Acid-base indicator chart. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/acid-base-indicator-chart/

Acids and bases. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/Acid_and_base/

Accurate titration. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/accurate-titration

Aggregates. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/aggregates

Arrhenius definition of acids and bases. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/arrhenius_def/

Balancing redox reactions. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/balancing-redox-reactions

Cell potential. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/galvanic-cell-potential

Compressive strength. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/compressive-strength

Concordant titre. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/concordant-titre

Concrete standards. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/concrete-standards

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Denitrification. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/denitrification

End-point. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/end-point/

Equivalence point. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/equivalence-point/

Eutrophication. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/eutrophication

Finding the concentration of a solution. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/titration-calculation/

Galvanic cells (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/galvanic-cell

Gas chromatography - mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/gcms/

GC-MS sample preparation. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/sample-prep-gcms/

Glossary for titration simulation. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/tri-glossary/

Half reactions. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/redox-half-reactions

How to read the burette. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/read-burette/

Lab sewage plant. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/labsewage

Lewis definition of acids and bases. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/lewis_def/

Light microscope. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/light-microscope

Lithium battery. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/lithium-battery

Meniscus. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/meniscus/

Micropollutant. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/micropollutant/

Mixing concrete. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/mixing-concrete

Nitrification. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/nitrification

Nitrogen cycle. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/nitrogen-cycle/

Oxidation number in ions, atoms, and compounds. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/oxidation-state-rules

Oxidation number in the periodic table. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/oxidation-state-periodic/

Particle size distribution. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/sieve-analysis-chart

pH (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/ph_level/

Phenolphthalein. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/phenolphthalein/

Predicting redox reactions (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/predicting-redox-reactions

Reactivity series (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/reactivity-series

Redox potential. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/redox-potential

PREPARED BY: Nathaniel M. Cabansay, BSCpE

Redox reactions. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/redox-reactions-crl/

Rough titration. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/rough-titration/

Sieve analysis. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/sieve-analysis

Slump test. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/slump-test

Spectrophotometry. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/spectrophotometry/

Spectrophotometry analysis. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/spectrophotometry_analysis/

Spectrophotometry principle. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/spectrophotometry_principle/

Strong and weak acids. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/strong_and_weak_acids/

Strong and weak bases. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/strong_and_weak_bases/

Thymolphthalein. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/thymolphthalein/

Titration. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/titration/

Titration apparatus. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/titration-apparatus/

Titration procedure. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/titration-procedure/

Titre. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/titre/

Volumetric flask. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/volumetric-flask/

Water quality – nitrogen. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/water-quality-nitrogen/

Water quality – oxygen. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/water-quality/

Workability. (2020). Labster Theory. https://theory.labster.com/workability

Other Internet Sources

Condon, C. (2018, April 2). GHS pictogram training cheat sheet. EHS Daily Advisor. https://
ehsdailyadvisor.blr.com/2018/04/ghs-pictogram-training-cheat-sheet

Department of Engineering Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry. (2020) Calorimetry. In CHEM181: Chemistry for
Engineers – Laboratory. Moodle. https://lair.education

Department of Engineering Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry. (2020) Common laboratory apparatus. In CHEM181:
Chemistry for Engineers – Laboratory. Moodle. https://lair.education

Department of Engineering Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry. (2020) Common laboratory operations. In CHEM181:
Chemistry for Engineers – Laboratory. Moodle. https://lair.education

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